wn e T o ap of C ity ive rs Un n The copyright of this thesis vests in thwe author. No quotation from it or information derive Td ofrom it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for ppriveate study or non- commercial research purposes onlay. f C Published by the Universiyty of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive liceintse granted to UCT by the author. ers Univ n ow pe T a of C y rsi t niv e U i Cultivating Recognition: A Classic Grounded Theory of E-Learning Providers Working in East Africa By Titus Tossy wn To Thesis Presented for tahep Deegree of DOCTOR OF P CHILOSOPHY In the Departmen to off Information Systems At thsei Ft yaculty of Commerce UNeIVrERSITY OF CAPE TOWN iv Un Supervisor: Prof. Irwin Brown FEBRUARY, 2012 ii Declaration I hereby declare that Cultivating Recognition: A Classic Grounded Theory of E-Learning Providers Working in East Africa is my own work, and all sources have been acknowledged through referencing. T.TOSSY wn To pe Ca of Copyright sit y Titus Tossy: r ive Cultivating RUecongnition: A Classic Grounded Theory of E-Learning Providers Working in East Africa Copyright © Titus Tossy and University of Cape Town 2012. Due acknowledgement must always be made of the use of any material contained in this treatise, or derived from this treatise. Cover photo: Credit is given to Titus Tossy and http://www.elearningcouncil.com iii n "... rather than debate {the} relative meritso owf the Grounded Theory {approaches}, {it is} suggest{ed} teha tT novice researchers need to select the method that best suaitps their cognitive style and develop analytic skills through dooifn gC research" ( Heath & Cowley, 2004:1) it y ive rs Un iv Acknowledgements I want to thank Prof. Irwin Brown from the Department of Information Systems at the University of Cape Town for valuable (1) supervision and advice and (2) financial support throughout the study. I have benefited considerably from your wonderful supervision and support. I wish to thank Dr Andy Lowe for his guidance regarding Classic Grounded Theory research methodology and for being my methodological coach from the beginning until the end of this study. I will never forget your wencnouragement and reassurance during those times when I was in a state of confusion. To I also wish to thank the National Research Founpdaetion (NRF) for funding me in various aspects. You enabled me to focus aCnd aprogress in my research activities, including networking with my peer reviewoerfs. I also want to thank the entire sittayff and students in the Department of Information Systems, Faculty of Commeercres and the University of Cape Town as a whole, for making my PhD journey ibvoth interesting and rewarding in so many ways. n I am grateful toU my wife Mpe Paulo for her substantial financial support which made it possible for my Methodology mentor Dr Andy Lowe to make several journeys to meet me in Kenya and Tanzania. Most especially, I want to thank the many anonymous E-learning providers working in East African Universities who have allowed me access to their world and have supplied me with data during the course of this research. God bless you all! v Abstract The purpose of this thesis is to identify and examine the main concern amongst e-learning providers tasked with e-learning activities (design, delivery, implementation, etc) in East Africa, including Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda. In this study the Classic Grounded Theory research methodology was used in order to identify the main concern of e-learning providers in these countries. In the course of repeated encounters with e-learning providers, this study found the concept of “Cultivating Recognition” to emerge as the main concern or core nvariable amongst these e-learning providers. The core variable within the Claosswic Grounded Theory research method is the main entity that accounts for mos t Tof the variation in the data. . The e-learning providers were shown to be continpuaelly striving to resolve the issue of how to cultivate recognition from those wh oC spaonsor and monitor the projects with which they are tasked. Without prope r orecfognition from their various stakeholders, the e-learning providers were unaibtley to successfully deliver e-learning programs to the targeted learners. ers The research disconveirved that there were two key sub-core variables that enabled the "Cultivation of RUecognition": "Legitimizing" and "Credentializing". The process of "Legitimizing" involves convincing the e-learning stakeholders that the e-learning programs and projects will be delivered in a timely, valid and sustainable manner. "Credentializing” aims to enhance the stakeholders' belief in the e-learning provider‟s competence prior to the start of the e-learning project, given that sponsors and stakeholders would be unwilling to commission a project if they believe an e-learning professional‟s ability to deliver in terms of both financial and operational quality parameters is in question. vi In addition to the findings, two main implications emerged from the research. Firstly, for those working within the context of e-learning delivery within East African countries, it is not sufficient for e-learning providers simply to possess or demonstrate a high level of technical competence. They need also to be trained and mentored in how to cultivate the recognition of potential stakeholders before they canvas for e-learning projects. Secondly the possibility exists for career academics in any discipline to enhance their own research funding prospects by mastering the process of Cultivating Recognition. wn e T o ap f C ity o ers Univ vii Dedication I would like to dedicate this thesis to the four most important people, present and past, in my life. To my wife, Mpe Paulo, who has stood beside me for many difficult years and never waivered in her love and support of all that I strived to do. You are truly my hero. Without you, this research would not have been possible. Thank you, my love. To Lilybeth, my precious daughter, born in my absence (I wasn writing my PhD proposal), late in starting her schooling (I was writing thesis o) w, for all that you bring into my life. You truly were a gift I was not expecting a nTd one that has bestowed blessing on my life. pea To my only Mom, the late Catherine Tosfs yC. Your love and support for me during my early years and belief in me werey m yo inspiration. Your personal struggles to care for seven children left to you sbyi tyour late husband and the complications and hardships you endured proveiderd me with an early understanding of the importance of this research and then chiovice of research methodology. I love you and miss you terribly! U To Peter Tossy, my precious brother, for taking care of me right after the death of our mom in 1984, and for all that you bring into my life, your great encouragements. I remember that it was you who first taught me Psalm 23, I will never forget. You too are truly a gift I was not expecting and one that has bestowed many blessings on my life and my marriage, as well as my future ambitions. viii wn e T o p f C a y o rsi t niv e U ix Table of Contents Declaration ........................................................................................................ iii Copyright ............................................................................................................ iii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................ v Abstract .............................................................................................................. vi Dedication......................................................................................................... viii n List of Tables ....................................................................o....w............................. xx List of Figures and Illustrations ............................e.... ..T................................... xxii p List of Abbreviations and Symbols ........C.....a................................................. xxiv Chapter 1 : Introduction and Back gorofund to the Study................................... 1 y 1.1. Introduction ..........r...s...i.. t........................................................................... 1 1.2. Background itvo tehe study ......................................................................... 3 n 1.2.1. EUast Africa ..................................................................................... 3 1.2.2. Higher Learning Institutions in East Africa ..................................... 4 1.2.3. Information and Communication Technologies in East Africa ........ 6 1.2.4. E-learning ...................................................................................... 7 1.3. Research Objectives ............................................................................ 17 1.4. Which Grounded Theory Methodology and Why? ................................ 18 x 1.5. The Researcher's Professional Concern .............................................. 25 1.6. Thesis Outline ....................................................................................... 27 1.7. Summary .............................................................................................. 27 Chapter 2 : Classic Grounded Theory Methodology ..................................... 28 2.1. Introduction ........................................................................................... 28 2.2. Ontology and Epistemology: Classic Grounded Theo ry iiii iiii iiiiiiiii iiiii ii ii i Philosophical and Methodological Questions .........w......n....................... 29 o 2.3. The Basic Philosophy Underpinning Classic G Trounded Theory iiiiiiiii iiii ii i i Methodology ........................................p.....e........................................... 40 a 2.4. Classic Grounded Theory Methfo dCology Stages and Procedures ......... 43 2.4.1. Generating Theorteytic a ol Sensitivity ............................................... 44 i 2.4.2. Theoreticael Srasmpling ................................................................... 45 2.4.3. Thenoreitvical Memos ...................................................................... 46 U 2.4.4. Substantive Coding ...................................................................... 47 2.4.5. Theoretical Coding ....................................................................... 48 2.4.6. The Constant Comparison Method .............................................. 48 2.4.7. Sorting ......................................................................................... 49 2.4.8. The Emergence of the Core Variable .......................................... 49 xi 2.5. Substantive versus Formal Theory ....................................................... 50 2.6. Special Characteristics of Grounded Theory ........................................ 50 2.7. Coding Data for Emergent Fit with Previously Grounded Theor y ........ 51 2.8. Transparency in Classic Grounded Theory Methodology ..................... 53 2.8.1. Generating Theoretical Sensitivity ............................................... 54 2.8.2. Theoretical Sampling ................................................................... 54 n 2.8.3. Theoretical Memos and coding ...................o....w............................. 55 2.8.4. The Constant Comparison Method aend STorting ........................... 57 p 2.8.5. The Emergence of the CoreC Vaariable .......................................... 58 2.9. Criteria for Evaluating Clas soic Gfrounded Theory Methodology iiiiii iiii ii i i ii research ....................i..t..y....................................................................... 58 s 2.9.1. Fit ........v....e.... r................................................................................. 58 i 2.9.2. WUornkability ................................................................................... 59 2.9.3. Relevance .................................................................................... 59 2.9.4. Modifiability .................................................................................. 60 2.10. Critique of Classic Grounded Theory Methodology .............................. 62 2.10.1. Methodological issues ................................................................. 65 2.10.2. Researcher based issues ............................................................ 65 xii 2.10.3. Academic institutional issues ....................................................... 66 2.11. Summary .............................................................................................. 67 Chapter 3 : Research Design and Approach Based on Classic iii iiii iiii iii iii ii i Grounded Theory Methodology .................................................. 68 3.1. Introduction ........................................................................................... 68 3.2. Research Population ............................................................................ 68 3.3. Data Collection ........................................................w......n....................... 69 o 3.3.1. Interviews / Meetings / Respondent En coTunters .......................... 69 e 3.3.2. Observation .............................a....p................................................ 75 3.3.3. Secondary data sourceos .f.. ..C......................................................... 76 3.4. Data Analysis .............i..t..y....................................................................... 76 rs 3.5. How Principles eof Theoretical Sampling have been used in this iiii iiiiii iiii ii Study nivto Aid the Researcher‟s Progressions ........................................ 78 U 3.6. Summary .............................................................................................. 84 Chapter 4 : Contextual Literature in E-learning .............................................. 86 4.1. Introduction ........................................................................................... 86 4.2. E-learning Background: Definitions and History ................................... 87 4.2.1. A broad view of e-learning and its definitions .............................. 87 xiii 4.2.2. A brief E-learning History ........................................................... 100 4.2.3. Drivers of Change ...................................................................... 101 4.3. Implementing, Managing and Evaluating e-learning ........................... 103 4.4. Issues Facing E-learning: e-Learning Framework Perspectives ......... 105 4.5. E-learning Strategies and ICT applications ......................................... 111 4.6. Understanding E-learning in East Africa ............................................. 117 n 4.6.1. Contribution of E-learning to the East Africao Ewconomy .............. 117 4.6.2. The market for E-learning & the Driveers oTf Change ................... 119 p 4.6.3. E-learning at HEIs in East ACfricaa ............................................... 120 4.6.4. General Advantages oof Ef-learning ............................................. 122 y 4.6.5. E-learning Bernsefiitts in the East Africa Context ........................... 123 4.6.6. E-learniivnge Limitations and Challenges in HEIs in East Africa .... 125 n 4.7. PrevioUus Research: Situating the Study within the Existing iiiiiii iii iiiii iiii iii i E-learning Literature: Critical evaluation ............................................. 131 4.8. Summary ............................................................................................ 135 Chapter 5 : The Emergence of the Theory of “Cultivating Recognition” ... 136 5.1. Introduction ......................................................................................... 136 xiv 5.2. Process in Which "Cultivating Recognition" Emerged as Core iii iiii iii iii ii ii Variable .............................................................................................. 137 5.3. Main Concepts of the Theory of "Cultivating Recognition" .................. 141 5.4. The Two (2) Primary Sub Core Variables of “Cultivating iii iii iiii iiiiii iii ii ii ii Recognition” ....................................................................................... 143 5.5. The Six Secondary Sub Core Variables of "Cultivating iiiiiiiiiii iiiiii iiiiii iii ii i ii Recognition" ....................................................................................... 150 n 5.6. The Lesser Concepts of Cultivating Recognition .o....w........................... 158 T 5.7. The transition from raw data to the emergeenc e of concepts ............... 160 p 5.8. The Core Variable of "Cultivating CRecaognition" .................................. 169 f 5.9. The Emergence of Theoret icoal Codes from Substantive Concepts .... 171 y 5.10. "Legitimizing" and "sitrCredentializing", the two Primary Sub Core iiiiiiiii iii iii ii Variables oif v"Ceultivating Recognition" ............................................... 176 5.10.1. "ULegnitimizing" - a project based variable of "Cultivating iiii iii iii iii iii iii ii Recognition" ............................................................................. 176 5.10.2. "Credentializing" - a Peer Based Variable of "Cultivating iii iii iii iii iii ii Recognition" ............................................................................ 177 5.11. The Six Secondary Sub Core Variables of "Cultivating Recognition" . 178 5.11.1. "Collaborating" ........................................................................... 179 xv 5.11.2. "Referral Networking" ................................................................ 182 5.11.3. "Strategic Alliancing" .................................................................. 183 5.11.4. "Endorsing" ................................................................................ 184 5.11.5. "Result Orienting" ...................................................................... 185 5.11.6. "Prioritizing Duties" .................................................................... 186 5.12. The Core Variable of "Cultivating Recognition" .................................. 187 n 5.13. Summary .............................................................o....w........................... 187 Chapter 6 : A Comparative Literature Review oef “ CTultivating iiii iiii iii iii ii ii iii Recognition” .............................a....p.............................................. 188 6.1. Exemplification of the compaorafti veC literature review objectives .......... 188 6.2. Examples of the differeitnyces between conceptual and contextual iiiiiiii ii ii i delimitating in lieterratsure reviews ......................................................... 195 6.2.1. Pre-nfraimved theory-building with a high focus on the concept iiii iiii iii ii oUf "Partner Collaborating" .......................................................... 195 6.3. Comparison with other Classic Grounded Theory Research in iii iii iii iii iii i Related Fields ..................................................................................... 196 6.3.1. "Cultivated Relationship" as Core Variable ................................ 197 6.4. Comparing Related Literature to Concepts Within the Theory of iii iii iii iii ii "Cultivating Recognition" .................................................................... 201 xvi 6.4.1. Comparing Literature That May Have Relatedness iiii iiii iii iii iii iii ii i ii due to Similarity in Conceptual Vocabulary ............................... 204 6.5. Comparison of the whole model of "Cultivating Recognition" ............. 218 6.5.1. Relevance to University Curricula .............................................. 218 6.6. Summary ............................................................................................ 219 Chapter 7 : Critical Evaluation of Classic Grounded Theory iii iii iii iii iii iii ii ii Methodology: Researcher's Perspective Highlighnt of iiii iii iii iii iii iii iii ii Challenges and Problems Faced during Reosewarch .................. 220 T 7.1. The Dominant use of the English Languagee .. ..................................... 221 p 7.2. Lost in Translation .......................C.....a.................................................. 221 f 7.3. The Researcher‟s Limitatio nos in the Suspension of his Own iiiiiiiiiiiiiii iii ii ii Preconceptions ...... y s...i..t....................................................................... 222 r 7.4. Candidate Rievseearch Skills: Heavy Reliance on the Researcher‟s iii iii iii ii ii Own Resnearch Skills .......................................................................... 222 U 7.5. The Comparative Literature Phase ..................................................... 223 7.6. Use of Extremely Dense and Highly Conceptual Language ............... 224 7.7. Summary ............................................................................................ 226 xvii Chapter 8 : Contributions of the Research to Knowledge, Learning iii iii iii iii ii Outcomes and Implications for Future Research ..................... 228 8.1. Contribution to knowledge .................................................................. 228 8.2. How the Core Variable [ Cultivating Recognition] and CGT iiii iiiiii iiiiiiii iiiii iii analysis can Advance E-learning in East Africa ................................. 231 8.2.1. How the Core Variable [Cultivating Recognition] can iiiii iiii iiii iiii iiii iii iii advanced E-learning in East Africa............................................ 231 n 8.2.2. How CGT Analysis can advanced E-learninog iwn East Africa ...... 232 T 8.3. Potential Contribution of the Research to Ee-le arning Practicesiii iiii iiii iiii iii i in East Africa ....................................a....p.............................................. 233 C 8.4. The Main Learning Outcomeos ffo r this Novice Classic Grounded iii iii iii iii iii Theorist .....................i..t..y.... ................................................................. 234 8.5. Self-critique: Theingrss that Could be done better ................................... 236 v 8.6. Implicationns ifor Future Research ........................................................ 237 U 8.6.1. Aspects of the Classic Grounded Theory of "Cultivating iii iii iii iii iii ii ii Recognition" which have the Potential for Future iii iii iii iii iii iii iii ii iiii iii Research Development ............................................................. 238 List of References ........................................................................................... 240 Appendices...................................................................................................... 282 xviii A.1. Critique on Strauss & Corbin (1990) [ "Evolved" or " Straussian" ] iii ii i ii i GT Approach ...................................................................................... 282 A.2. Critique of Locke‟s (2001) Book on the "Application of Grounded iii iii iii ii ii theory in Management Research" ..................................................... 287 A.3. Cultivating Recognition and Associated Memo Diagram .................... 290 A.4. Scheduling Meetings with Respondents ............................................. 291 A.5. Detailed List of Respondents With the Locations, Datesn and iii iii iii iii iii iii ii Durations of Meeting ...........................................o....w........................... 293 T A.6. Sample of Data Collected ..........................e.... ..................................... 297 p A.7. Overall Outcome of Data AnalysisC ....a.................................................. 305 f A.8. Assessment of Key Concep tos (Emerged Memos) .............................. 345 ty A.9. Working paper on rHsowi to Create and Sustain Transparency iiii iii iii iii iii iii when Using itvhee Classic Grounded Theory Research Method ............ 362 Un xix List of Tables Table 1: List of Failed Institutions Sorted by Money Spent ................................. 13 Table 2: Four Grounded Theory Approaches ..................................................... 19 Table 3: Epistemological and Ontological Concerns .......................................... 31 Table 4 : Selective criteria for Core Category ..................................................... 81 Table 5 : E-learning Definitions with Citations .................................................... 91 n Table 6: Labels Used to Describe the Same Concept of Eo-Lwearning ............... 95 T Table 7 : Advantages of a Systematic Approach toe E -learning iii iii iii iii iii iii iii iii ii ii iii and its Implementation ....................a....p.............................................. 105 C Table 8 : Old and New Challenges coonffro nting e-learning ............................... 108 Table 9 : E-learning Strategsiesi taynd Information and Communication iiii iiii iii iii iii iii iiii ii ii i Technology (ICeT)r Applications for Exchanging Information iiii iii iii iii iii iii iii ii and Gainningi vKnowledge .................................................................... 112 Table 10 : PedaUgogical, Technical and Cost Implications for E-learning iii iii iii iii iii iii Technologies, (Source: Sife et al. (2007: 2) .................................... 113 Table 11 : Advantages of Implementing E-learning Learning in education iii iii iii iii ii ii Institutions from different perspectives ............................................. 123 Table 12 : Identified Benefits of E-learning in East Africa Context ................... 124 Table 13 : Summary of E-learning Limitations and Challenges in East Africa. . 128 xx Table 14 : Contingency Structure Table Showing Type of Author and iiii iiiii iiii iiii iii iii Methodologies Used ........................................................................ 133 Table 15: The Process by which the Concept of "Cultivating Recognition" iii iii iii iii iii Emerged a Core Variable ............................................................. 142 Table 16 : Temporal Characteristics of the Secondary Sub Core Variables of iii iii iii ii "Cultivating Recognition" ................................................................. 153 Table 17 : Explanations on the Preliminary Memos from Figure 20 ................. 164 n Table 18: Some Quotes to do with Recognition and Acknoowwledgement: iii iii iii iii iii for Illustrative Purposes............................... ..T................................... 202 e p f C a y o rsi t niv e U xxi List of Figures and Illustrations Figure 1: The Argument structure of Chapter One ............................................... 2 Figure 2: Argument Structure of Chosen Research Methodology ...................... 28 Figure 3 : How the Principle of Theoretical Sampling have been used iii iii iii iii iii iii ii in this Study to aid the Researcher‟s Progression ............................. 82 Figure 4: The Argument Structure of Contextual Literature Review iiiiiiiiii iiii iiii iii iii ii in E-learning ................................................................n....................... 86 w Figure 5: A 21st Century Education System Goals an dT Ideoals .......................... 90 Figure 6 : The Subset of Relationships Betweenp thee various E-learning iii iii iii iii iii iii Labels .................................... a ..C......................................................... 99 f Figure 7: Drivers of the e-learningy re voolution ................................................... 102 t Figure 8 : A Framework forr Es-leiarning ............................................................. 106 e Figure 9 : The Peonpleiv-Process-Product (P3) E-learning Continuum Model ..... 109 Figure 10 : TheU Iterative Process of E-learning ................................................ 110 Figure 11 : The Process in Which "Cultivating Recognition" Emerged iii iii iii iii iii ii iii as Core Variable ............................................................................ 138 Figure 12: The Sub Core Primary Variables of "Cultivating Recognition" ........ 143 Figure 13: Sub-core Variables of “Legitimizing" ............................................... 145 Figure 14: Sub Core Variable of “Collaborating” .............................................. 146 xxii Figure 15 : Sub Core Variables of "Credentializing" ......................................... 147 Figure 16: Sub-core Variables of “Result Orienting" ........................................ 149 Figure 17 : Sub Core Variables of "Legitimizing" and " Credentializing" .......... 150 Figure 18 : An Overview of the Conceptual Hierarchy of Levels (Vertically) ii iii ii ii ii ii and some of the Characteristics of the Concepts (Horizontally) ..... 151 Figure 19 : The Lesser Concepts of "Cultivating Recognition" (contained iii iii iii iii iii ii in the highlighted area) .............................................n..................... 158 w Figure 20: Memo Sorting (Appendix A.7) ......................T....o............................... 163 Figure 21 : Legitimization Activity Model ............p.....e......................................... 209 a Figure 22 : Integrated Legitimation Activfi tyC Model ........................................... 210 Figure 23 : "Legitimizing" Accord o tiyng to "Cultivating Recognition" Theory" ....... 210 i Figure 24 : A Process Freamreswork of Collaboration .......................................... 212 v Figure 25 : Reasonns ifor Strategic Alliances by Market Type ........................... 214 U Figure 26 : Three Types of Strategic Alliances ................................................ 215 Figure 27 : Managerial Characteristics of Strategic Alliances .......................... 216 Figure 28 : The Alliance Process ..................................................................... 216 Figure 29 : Cultivating Recognition and Associated Memos Diagram .............. 290 xxiii List of Abbreviations and Symbols CAI - Computer Assisted Instruction CBL - Computer-Based Learning CBT - Computer-Based Training CD-ROM - Computer Disc Read Only Memory CGT - Classic Grounded Theory n CGTM - Classic Grounded Theory Methodoolowgy CTAL - The Commission on Technoelo gTy and Adult Learning DfES - Department of Educataionp and Sills EA - East Africa of C EAC - East Afriitcyan Community EGT - Eevorlvsed Grounded Theory Approach GT - nivGrounded Theory HEI U- Higher Education Institutions IBL - Internet Based Learning ICT - Information and Communication Technologies IS - Information Systems MOODLE - Modular Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment Organization xxiv PDA - Personal Digital Assistant UNDP - United Nations Development Programme UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural WB - World Bank WBI - Web-Based Instruction WBL - Web-Based Learning WBT - Web-Based Training wn e T o ap of C y ers it Univ xxv wn To ap e C y o f it ive rs Un Chapter 1 Introduction and Background to the Study 1.1. Introduction This chapter provides an introduction and background to the study. The chapter has six main sections. As shown in Figure 1 below, the first section of this chapter provides an historical background to the East Africa (EA) region which is the focus of the study. The second section provides a brief overview of the sntatus, challenges, failures and problems of e-learning in Higher Learning Instituotionws (HEIs) in EA, The third section will discuss different types and models oef eT-learning research so far , both inductive1 and deductive2 models. The fourath psection will present a discussion of the research objectives, examining tfh e Cvarious types of Grounded Theory approaches, focusing on the one used boy this study, in order to justify the relevance and importance of this study in termitsy of the phenomenon of e-learning in EA and the predominant types of e-leareninrgs research which has and is being done in this area. The fifth section of the cihvapter will explain the researcher's professional concerns. The chapter concUludens with a discussion of the structure of the thesis. All the 1 An inductive approach is a research type which is a bottom-up approach, moving from specific observation, patterns, and a tentative hypothesis, to a broader generalisation and theories (Burney & Mahmood , 2006; Trochim, 2006) 2 A deductive approach is a research type which is a top-down approach, moving from the general (theory) to the specific. (Burney & Mahmood , 2006; Trochim, 2006) 1 sections of the chapter are carefully linked in order to provide a comprehensive and coherent background and motivation for this study. n Is w sa e T o p Ca y o f it ive rs Un Figure 1: The Argument structure of Chapter One 2 1.2. Background to the study 1.2.1. East Africa The East African Countries targeted for this study were the Republic of Kenya, Republic of Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania. The choice of such countries within the East Africa region was based on the existing East African Community (EAC). As noted by EAC (2001) in the Treaty Establishing the East African Community, article 3 (1): “... the members of the community in this treaty referrwed nto as the partner states shall be the Republic of Kenya, the Republic oTf Uoganda and the United Republic of Tanzania ..." pe Historically the three countries have been Cecoanomically and diplomatically linked since 1919 (EAC, 2011). Such links havoe infc luded:  Customs Union bestwiete yn Kenya and Uganda (1917).Tanzania joined this union in 1927r ve  East Afrincani High Commission (1948-1961) U  East African Common Services Organisation (1961-1967)  East African Community (1967-1977)  East African Cooperation (1993-2000)  East African Community (2000- Present) 3 The three states enjoy historical, commercial, industrial, cultural and other ties (EAC, 2001). 1.2.2. Higher Learning Institutions in East Africa Included in the process of integrating the East Africa Community region was the establishment of Inter-university Councils for East Africa (EAC, 2001) for the purpose of broadening and increasing interaction among Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in the region. In East Africa regional higher education interaction and cooperation initiatives were founded during the period 1930 to 1960 during the pnre-independence era when Makerere University College in Uganda was theo ownly higher education institution in the region and which, in addition to Uganda nT students, served students from Kenya, the then Tanganyika, and Zanzibar (pIUeCE, 2001). At that time HIEs such as Makerere University College in UgaCndaa existed as campuses under the control of, and certificated by, various coolofn izing countries. For example, Makerere College in Uganda was offering dietgyrees from the University of London (Chacha, 2009). During the process of rresgional integration, and towards the end of the 20th century and the beginninigv oef the 21st century, HEIs in the region were experiencing significant transformUatnion. For example, due to a series of financial crises in many East Africa (EA) countries during this time, the HEIs in the region could not be adequately financed to cater for the ever-increasing student enrolment (Chacha, 2009). During this period donors began to reduce funding. For example, the World Bank (WB3) reduced the proportion of funds allocated to HEIs in African countries from 17% between 1985-1989 to a mere 7% between 1995 and 2001 (Chacha, 3 World Bank, a vital source of financial and technical assistance to developing countries around the world, available at www.worldbank.org 4 2009). In addition most HEIs in the region lacked rapid expansion plans to cope with the increasing demand for higher education. In the late nineties Sifuna (1998:7) observed that: “There has been no planning in university education for a considerable length of time. The increasing demand for higher education is also seen to have contributed to the lack of planning.” Sifuna (1998) reveals that rapid expansion of university education was a spontaneous rather than a planned response to the high denmand for higher education. With the increasingly large flows of students ofrowm schools, popular demand for higher education increased. People seem eTd to be investing a lot of hope in higher education as a means of economicapllye enriching and developing the next generation. Such an increase in the de mCanad for higher education required an increase in the number of HEIs in the E oA rfegion. The rapid expansion of university education has resulted in a numbeitr yof challenges. According to a UNESCO4 World Conference on Higher Educeatiorns (1998), the low level of funding from the exchequer limited access in relationi vto the population level, and increased enrolment without a commensurate impUrovnement in available facilities. Gender inequality and limited research capacity were just some of the problems facing universities in the region at the end of the 20th century. These problems led to fears on the part of e-learning receivers that the quality of education was following a downward trend in most of these universities. Indeed, Chacha (2009) argues that there was, and continues to 4 UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizations, available at www.unesco.org 5 be, a serious shortage of public funds for expansion, especially for physical infrastructure and teaching materials. 1.2.3. Information and Communication Technologies in East Africa In a contemporary setting, in the 21st century, it is unlikely that there is a sector in East Africa, including the education sector, which functions without integrating Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) into its operations. There is increased use of ICT in every aspect of the economy in East Anfrica (Sife, et al. 2007). It does not take an ICT specialist to see that there ios owngoing ICT use and development in East Africa. ICT use is concentrated m oTre in urban areas than in rural areas due to the availability of supporting infrapstreucture, such as electricity and ICT expertise (Ndume et al. 2008). Sife etC al.a (2007) argue that, due to lack of infrastructure (electricity, internet accesso, bfa ndwidth and others), the use of ICTs in rural areas is yet to reach a level w ihticyh compares with that in urban areas. There are ongoing debates about the ursse of ICTs in various sectors, not excluding the education sector, and incilvudeing conferences and other forums. The education sector has witnessed rapiUd gnrowth in the use of ICTs in comparison with other sectors such as agriculture (Sife et al. 2007). The use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in teaching and learning opens new vistas to education and its accessibility (Galagan, 2000). Olatokun (2008) argues that ICTs have become a potent force in transforming social, economic, educational, and political life both globally and in East Africa and other developing regions. ICTs provide an opportunity for educational institutions to harness and use technology to complement and support the teaching and learning process. 6 1.2.4. E-learning E-learning is an example of the use of these ICTs to support teaching and learning. Wentling et al. (2000:5) defined e-learning as: “The acquisition and use of knowledge distributed and facilitated primarily by electronic means. This form of learning currently depends on networks and computers but will likely evolve into systems consisting of a variety of channels (e.g. Wireless, satellite), and technologies (e.g. Cellular phones, PDA5s) as they are developed and adopted. E-learning cann take the form of courses as well as modules and smaller learning oobjewcts. E-learning may incorporate synchronous or asynchronous acces sT and may be distributed geographically with varied limits of time.” (Wepnteling et al., 2000:5). a The use of e-learning can be via CD-fR OCM6, a communication network, or the Internet (Yieke, 2005) and has the yad doed value of flexibility (”anywhere, anytime, anyplace”). „E-learning‟ capturess a iwtide range of terms (Albert & Mori, 2001) referred to as „labels‟ which have beeen rused to describe the concept of e-learning. As will be discussed in Chaptern 4,i vthese labels include, but are not limited to, Web Based Learning (WBL), WUeb Based Instruction (WBI), Web Based Training (WBT), Internet Based Training (IBT), Online Resource Based Learning (ORBL), Advanced Distributed Learning (ADL), Tele-Learning (T-L), Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL), Mobile Learning (M-learning or ML), Nomadic Learning, Off-Site 5 PDA- Personal Digital Assistant; A small handheld computer used to store information such as addresses and telephone numbers and for simple word processing and use of spread sheets. 6 CD-ROM - Compact Disc-Read Only Memory, CD-ROM drives or optical drives are CD players inside computers that can have speeds in the range of 1x and beyond, and have the capability of playing audio CDs and computer data CDs.(www.computerhope.org) 7 Learning (Collis, 1996; Khana, 2005; Yieke, 2005; Bates, 2001; Dam, 2004; Goodear et al., 2001; Pegler & Littlejohn, 2007; Dabbagh et al., 2000; Barbara, 2002, 2004; Cramer, et al., 2000; Salzbert & Polyson, 1995; Schreiber, et al., 1998; Schank, 2001 and Singh, 2003). These labels will be examined in detail in Chapter 4. For the purpose of setting parameters to, and refining, the definition, the study will use the term e-learning, eLearning, and eLearning interchangeably throughout this thesis. E-learning facilitates both learner engagement and the engaging of experiences (Uys, 2004; Meyen, 200; 2002). Omwenga et al. (2004) demonstrate how e-learning helps to overcome the traditional barriers tow ednucation delivery. These barriers include lack of physical infrastructure, lac kT of oqualified teaching staff, absence of adequate education budgets, and the fapiluere of traditional pedagogy and curricula. East African countries are characteCrisead by these barriers (Ndume et al, 2008; Omwenga et al., 2004). The failouref of the government's efforts in building physical classrooms has created an yop portunity for innovative education delivery via e-learning (Yieke, 2005). t rsi Integration of ICTs ini vEaest African Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) is taking place despite the vUarinous constraints. The HEI sector in East Africa has witnessed the rapid spread of the use of ICTs in teaching and learning. The utilisation of ICTs differs from one HEI to another and from one country to another. The swiftness of the development of ICTs, their increasing spread and availability, the nature of their content, and their affordability have major implications for learning. Chacha, et al. (2004:4) argue for the importance of ICTs in education: "There is a need to tap the potential of ICTs to enhance data collection and analysis, and to strengthen management systems in educational institutions; to 8 improve access to education by remote and disadvantaged communities; to support initial and continuing professional development of teachers; and to provide opportunities to communicate across classrooms and cultures" Limited access to ICTs in the East African region is due mainly to financial constraints which result in an education system that has too few physical classrooms and a shortage of teaching and training professionals. Also most HEIs in East Africa have very limited access to modern computing and communications technology, and thus it is increasingly difficult for teachers and students to keep abreast of current developments in their academic areas. wn o Chacha, et al. (2004) argue that low investment in ITCT infrastructure, coupled with the high cost of connectivity and bandwidth, arpe tewo major problems that hinder the effective use of the resources available o nC th ae Internet. Most HEIs in East Africa are facing these problems, thus maki nog fthe integration of ICT into teaching and learning more difficult. Suddaby &i tMyilne (2008:31) point out the political dimension of this: ve rs "Due to the npriofound implication of the digital divide...discussions on the integration oUf ICT have almost always taken a political turn ". Because of these problems e-learning in East Africa has manifested either slow delivery or unrealized potential. While Ngugi (2006) has argued that the use of e- learning becomes inevitable where conventional alternatives no longer exist, there is a range of factors in East Africa which contribute to the slowness of ICT delivery: high population numbers, lack of education physical infrastructure, lack of ICT infrastructure and the lack of adequate professional educators. Ironically this in turn 9 intensifies the need for e-learning implementation. Alavi and Leidner (2001) insist that the importance of e-learning will increase across the education spectrum from primary schools to HEI in East Africa. E-learning has the potential to streamline the learning delivery process by reducing the number of teaching professionals that have so far been thought to be required, as well as having the potential to transform the way we learn, and to bring high quality, accessible learning to everyone. Ndume et al. (2008) argue that the failure of traditional education delivery is in fact crucial to the expansion of e-learning. Pegler & Littlejohn (2007) argue that the existence of a high population eligible for education forces the education secwtor nto move towards students using computers for self-directed study. Charles oClarke (2003:9) in his report to the Department of Education and Skills (DfEeS7) Tin the United Kingom (UK) argued that the 21st century education system shaoupld:  C Offer flexible provision to a divoersfe range of learners;  Support and enable thse idteyvelopment of a professional workforce, creating skilled graduates ceaprable of problem solving and creative thinking; iv  EmpoweUr lenarners to make choices about how, when and where they learn and with what and whom;  Give better value for students in supporting their learning in ways best suited to their particular needs and goals and in timely and cost-effective ways and; 7 DfES- Department of Education and Skills in United Kingdom 10  Support creativity and innovation not only in mainstream research activities, but also in approaches to teaching and the support of learning. As has been mentioned, Alavi and Leidner (2001) were of the opinion that e- learning‟s importance will grow right across the educational spectrum from primary to higher education institutions (HEIs). This prediction has been borne out in the United States, where in 2007 the market for „wholly online‟ degrees was estimated to be worth 17.2 billion US$ compared to 5 billion US$ in 2004, with an estimate of 4 billion US$ online tutoring at the growth rate of 10 -15% annually. Howenver, in the UK in 2004 the Higher Education Funding Council for Education (HEwFCE) announced the effective demise of the £50 million UKeU online univers itTy poroject. The project had been originally planned to provide „wholly onlinpe‟e courses for undergraduate, postgraduate, continuing professional develoCpmaent and continuing education and training students along the lines of thoe ft raditional structure of UK universities. Various individuals and bodies, inclutdyin g the CHEMS, blamed the failure of UKeU on its largely supply-driven, ratherr thsain demand-led, approach, arguing that: e “There wasn niov systematic evaluation of the markets, no thorough and robust markUet research and no understanding of consumer demand. This was typical of UkeU‟s supply-driven rather than demand-led approach.” (Education_and_Skills_Committee, (Clarke, 2003:17) The failure of UKeU and other e-learning initiatives (see Table 1) indicates that e- learning implementation should be demand-led and carefully planned from a provider‟s point of view. Li (2009) stated that a clear understanding of both e- learning providers (University e-learning teaching and training professionals) and customers (e-learners) was required. Many governments are encouraging Higher 11 Education Institutions (HEIs) to embed e-learning in their individual strategies, making HEIs become individually responsible for their own e-learning delivery and design (Ndume et al., 2008), and thus individually or in consortia representing their respective countries in the global markets for online learning. Due to the fact that most of the HEIs in East Africa get trapped in getting funding and consultants from developed countries, the e-learning projects of these countries tend to be copied or replicated by the developing countries (Ndume et al., 2008). Failure of e-learning projects in HEIs in East Africa has direct implications for the countries or institutions from which an e-learning project hwas nbeen copied or replicated. As such the failure of many e-learning proje cTts oin East Africa has not been documented. Table 1 below details the failed ep-leearning initiatives in developed countries, many of which represent the sourcCes aor models of most of the e-learning projects being implemented in East Africao afn d which also inevitably fail. y rsi t niv e U 12 Institution Country Years in No. of Years Total Types of Education Operations in Operation Amount Initiative Level Spent UK e- UK 2000-2004 4 £50M Political University University US Open USA 1998-2002 4 $27M Institutional University University n Alliance for USA & 2000-2006 6 $12M Consowrtium Further Lifelong UK o Education Learning T pe IT Forneb Norway 1998-2001 3 C€a9M Political Further f Education y o The UK 2002-200s7 it5 £2.3M University University Scottish Interactive University ive r Un Table 1: List of Failed Institutions Sorted by Money Spent (Source: Keegan et al., 2007) While Table 1 above highlights the failure of e-learning project investment in developed countries, there are various e-learning projects in East Africa which have failed, but have not been documented. Unfortunately governments have learned little from these failures. It is failures such as these which motivated the researcher 13 to undertake this study. Paulsen (2003) argues that a successful e-learning project should be both robust and sustainable. E-learning education offered so far has been transient, unsuccessful and far from sustainable (Table 1). Keegan et al. (2007) list these failures according to type of initiative and reasons for its failure: • Many governmental online education initiatives have not been sustainable • Online education consortia are often not sustainable • Many commercial and investor-driven online education initiatives have failed • Boardroom initiatives often fail wn • Several high profile international ventures have beeTn doiscontinued Even existing e-learning efforts are characterized bey shortcomings. While on the one hand Salomon (1993) argues that effectivae puse of ICT is essential to the acquisition of knowledge and skills, Urdan f& WCeggen (2000), argue that the level of ICT skills in Africa is still very low. Thyis hoas implications for the effective use of ICTs for education delivery. Nunan r(1s99i6t,) citing the 1999 UNDP8 reports, describes the slow internet connectivityv aend costly internet access of poor communities in East Africa. While the liternatuire indicates clearly that developed countries have been participating in e-leUarning for many years, East African countries are still in the initial e-learning implementation stages. Most of the e-learning projects in these countries face challenges due to inadequate knowledge or understanding of ICTs (Ndume et al., 2008; Khan, 2005; Bebee, 2004; Omwenga et al., 2004; Allen, 2002 and Alexander, 2001). Aranda (2007) and Allen (2007) have shown how conflicting agendas in terms of the appropriate use of technology, the application of pedagogy 8 UNDP :United nations Development Programme 14 and delivery of the curriculum, lack of resources, lack of well-trained knowledgeable staff, lack of management support and poor infrastructure have exacerbated hindrances to e-learning implementation. Issues related to institutional, management, technological, pedagogical, ethical, interface design, resources and design have been cited by Khan (2005) as issues which need to be addressed at all stages of e-learning implementation, operation and evaluation processes. According to Clarke (2003) the shortcomings of e-learning implementation are due to the lack of both systematic evaluation of the market and thonrough and robust market research. Macpherson et al. (2005) suggest that unwderstanding of such shortcomings can be enhanced through developing the "n aTvigoation skills" to evaluate specific contexts before determining the best pcoeurse of action to take in implementing e-learning. Navigation skills incCludea understanding the main concerns of e-learning recipients as noted by Letcho (2f0 06:32): “Lack of a clear undersittaynding of both e-learning providers‟ (e-learning providers that includee lerctsurers) and customers‟ (e-learners) main concerns to the implementatioinv of e-learning was required" n Scott (2007) resUearched the main concerns from the e-learner‟s perspective, and discovered "The Temporal Integration of Connected Study into a Structured Life" to be the main concern of online learners. Scott (2007) focused on understanding the main concerns of online learners and how these concerns are processed in order to suggest new ways of designing support strategies for e-learners. Other e-learning research studies from both inductive and deductive perspectives are discussed in detail in Chapter 4. 15 Government cost constraints and limited household budgets have disenfranchised large numbers of people in East Africa who have the potential to benefit from education at all levels. To meet this challenge universities are turning to e-learning (whether it is partially conventional learning or wholly e-learning) to ensure that all eligible members of the population have equal access to education. However any e-learning strategy will have to be skilfully designed and implemented with great expertise because experiences in other countries have shown that very few e- learning delivery models have been effective. In order to be able to implement an effective e-learning process it is essential to understand the manin concern of e- learning providers and how that concern is processed ando awddressed in order to improve practice. T pe While there are many well documented reCseaarch studies, using various research methodologies (as discussed in detail ino cfh apter 4), on various ICT topics, there is no documented research where thye main concerns from the perspective of e- learning providers have been irnvsesittigated. The relevance and persistence of the e- learning field has been clevaerly indicated from the phenomenon of e-learning in HEIs in East Africa. Whilen ithere is work being done by leading researchers and practitioners in theU field, most of these researchers have used reductionist research methodology. In view of the recent history of the ineffective introduction of e-learning in EA, a strong case can be made for employing a new research approach. This study has focused on the perspectives of the e-learning university professionals, the providers of the service, rather than on the various e-learning modes and IT involved in its implementation. It aims to fill the research gap by means of developing an understanding of the main concern of the e-learning university professionals working in East Africa, and how that concern is addressed, in order to deliver more effective 16 and sustainable e-learning provision in practice through the use of an inductive research methodology. 1.3. Research Objectives Considering the detailed identified gaps in the previous sections, the research objectives were therefore as follows: 1. To identify the main concerns of e-learning providers in East Africa 2. To discover the most important and challenging issues that e-learning providers face in East Africa n 3. To understand how their main concerns are processeod wand resolved in order to inform better e-learning provision in practice T The research objectives outlined above were fopuned to be of most important to uncover and recommend ways for success fCul ea-learning implementations in East Africa. The East African universities ha voe fbeen and are struggling to implement e- learning projects. Some of these pirtoyjects fail, some are approved, and of these only a few have managed to survirves. Therefore, the research objectives managed to discover the reasons fori vthies failure in the context of the government‟s attempts to encourage the univUersnities to implement e-learning (Ndume et al., 2008) Leitch (2006) argues for the need to know the main concerns and issues of e- learning providers and how these are addressed and resolved by them. It is hoped that interrogation of the core issues facing the e-learning providers will provide new insights for improving e-learning implementation in the East African region in particular. 17 Due to the nature of the objectives of this thesis, the choice of research method was entirely pragmatic, based on the everyday realities of the researched community. To discover the main concern of respondents as regards providing e- learning required a thorough investigation of “real-life” situations relevant to the specific problem (Gasson, 1998). The research methodology was chosen on the basis of its allowing the investigation of the real-life situations relevant to the main concern of the e-learning university professionals working in East Africa. Due to lack of inductive studies in this research area, it was decided that there exists a need to do a pure inductive study. Among the inductive research methowdolnogies available, it was decided that the grounded theory (GT) research methoodology was the most appropriate for the purposes of this thesis. Due toe t hTe existence of many GT research methodologies, the question that neaedped to be asked was “Which Grounded Theory research methodology sho uCld be used and why?” This question is discussed in detail in section 1.3 below. f ty o 1.4. Which Grounrdseid Theory Methodology and Why? In 1967, Barney Glaisver eand Anselm Strauss discovered the Grounded Theory (GT) research metUhodn. Anselm Strauss with Julie Corbin (1990) later came up with another research method that they also called grounded theory. Since 1990 various grounded theory approaches have come into existence. Most recently, Matavire and Brown (2011) have demonstrated the existence of different GTM approaches in Information Systems (IS) research. Such approaches include the "Classic" GT (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Glaser, 1978; 1992; 1996; 1998; 1999a; 1999b; 2001; 2003; 2005; 2006; 2008; 2009; 2011), "Evolved" GT,(Strauss & Corbin, 1990; 1989), 18 "Analytical" GT (Strauss & Corbin, 1990), and "Mixed" GT Method (Mingers, 2001; Eisenhardt, 1989; Baskerville and Pries-Heje, 1999), as shown in Table 2 below. Approach Typical References Classic Glaser & Strauss (1967); Glaser (1992), and other works by Glaser Evolved Strauss & Corbin (1990, 1998), inclunding possible references to Glaser‟s works ow Mixed Methods T Mingers (2001); Eisenhparedt (1989); Baskerville and Pries-Heje (1999). a Analytical C Variety, but moofs t often Strauss‟s works. Table 2: Fousr iGtr younded Theory Approaches v(Seorurce: Matavire & Brown, 2011) i As Matavire & BUrownn (2011) state: The predominant mode of usage in IS research has been the application of grounded theory analysis techniques, followed by the evolved grounded theory approach, mixed methods and then classic method (Matavire & Brown, 2011). "Classic" Grounded Theory Methodology (CGTM) approach is accepted as being faithful to the original formulation and follows the original tenets of Glaser & Strauss 19 (1967). It has been further elaborated and refined by Glaser (1978; 1992; 1996; 1998; 1999a; 1999b; 2001; 2003; 2005; 2006; 2008; 2009; 2011). CGTM is a general inductive research method designed to reveal deep seated latent patterns of human behavior and how the main concerns are being continually being resolved (Glaser, 1978). The "Evolved" Grounded Theory (EGT) approach originated primarily from Strauss & Corbin (1990), and involved some modification of and departure from the CGTM. EGT approach is also labelled as "Straussian" [Strauss & Corbin (1990) grounded theory method] (Matavire & Brown, 2008; Van Niekwerk n& Roode, 2009). Hernandez (2006), amongst others, points out that the STtraouss and Corbin (1990) method (evolved) differs fundamentally from the pCeGTM of Glaser and Strauss (1967). Shortly after the publication of StrauCss aand Corbin (1990), Glaser (1992) wrote various requests, without successo, fto Strauss to either re-write the book or change the label of their new methody to something other than grounded theory. The two fundamental differences brestwie ten CGTM and EGT methodology concern the difference between the idevaes of „emergence‟ versus „forcing‟, and whether grounded theory is a qualitative nori general research method. Glaser (1978, 1992, 2008, and 2009) argues that Uthe Strauss & Corbin (1990) method, the EGT method, changes the research method from one of emergence to one of forcing. It allows the researcher to use deductive logic rather than analytic induction to move to the final stage of CGT analysis. Consequently, according to Glaser (1982), all research based on the Strauss and Corbin (1990) method (EGT) can only ever deliver detailed situation specific description. Glaser (1982) further asserts that it cannot deliver high level conceptual explanations of latent patterns which transcend both time and location. This method is neither emergent nor transcendent he argues. 20 Glaser (2008) argues that CGTM is a general research method and can and has been used with all types of data, including quantitative data, whereas the EGT approach position is a sub set of qualitative data analysis. Thus, the EGT approach of Corbin & Strauss (1990, 1998) is just another subsection of the QDA research approach which borrows the powerful jargon of the Classic GT method without the same academic rigour (Glaser, 1992). More critiques on of the EGT approach are included in Appendix A.1 (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) and Appendix A.2 (Locke, 2001). The "Mixed" method approach attempts to combine the GT research method with other research methods (Mingers, 2001; Eisenhardt, 1989; Baswkervnille & Pries-Heje, 1999). Among the most popular combinations are gTrouonded action research (Baskerville & Pries-Heje, 1999; DeLuca et al, 200p8) eand the grounded case study approach (Eisenhardt, 1989). Glaser & HoltonC (2a004) are against combining classic GTM with other research methods. Sucho cfo mbinations, they believe, may erode the ability to generate conceptual theotryy ( Glaser, 1992, 1998, 2001; Glaser & Holton, 2004). rsi When using the "Anailvytiecal" GT approach, the researcher does not necessarily follow either the evUolvned or the Classic GT approach. The researcher only uses the GTM techniques such as open and/or axial and/or selective coding (Matavire & Brown, 2011). When using the analytical GT approach, there is no evidence for following principles of CGT, rather than simply using GT for the purpose of analysis (Matavire & Brown, 2011). It merely follows the tools of CGT but does not utilise its tenets. As a result, the “Mixed" approach does not develop and augment theory. Glaser (1978, 1992) argues that mixing CGTM with other research methods neither delivers theory nor discovers the main concern of the substantive area of research. 21 Due to the existence of these many GT approaches, Van Niekerk and Roode (2009) argue that a choice of the GT research approach must be approached with care and done within the specific context of the research. The choice of research methodology should have a rationale, and such rationale should be justified in terms of the researcher‟s preference of methodology over other research methodologies. Heath & Cowley (2004:1) argue that: "... rather than debate the relative merits of the ‟GT approaches‟, it is suggested that novice researchers need to select the methnod that best suits their cognitive style and develop analytic skills througho dowing research". T Firstly, being fully aware of what has been suggesteed by Heath & Cowley (2004), it was decided that the Classic Grounded Theaoryp (CGT) Research Methodology (Glaser, 1978, 1992; Glaser & Strauss, 1f9 6C7) was the most appropriate for this thesis. o ity Secondly, the CGTM was crhsosen because it claims to deliver the main concerns of e-learning providers ini vEaest Africa, the key research objective in this study. Prior research in the fieUld nof e-learning implementation has been more concerned with comparing received wisdom of existing theories with practitioner behaviour (Scott, 2007). Most research tends to view the data from the perspective of a prior theory rather than from those subjects being researched (Scott, 2007). CGTM is an approach which ensures that the contributions to knowledge in and of the area are not generated from existing theories but are grounded in the data collected from one or more empirical study (Gasson 2004; Adolph et al., 2008). CGT is designed to foster and develop skills of conceptual analysis that many researchers do not realize 22 they have (Glaser, 1992), and requires the researcher to be able to maintain analytic distance while at the same time drawing upon theoretical knowledge and astute powers of assimilation of data, which in turn allows those concepts, which the patterns of the data indicate, to emerge. Thus, CGTM fits both the nature of the phenomenon being researched (E-e-learning providers) as well as the key research question (the main concern) and follows Lowe‟s (1996:1) description of CGT as being designed to: “Develop and integrate a set of ideas and hypothesesn in an integrated theory that accounts for behaviour in any substantive arewa” Thirdly, the choice of CGTM over other theories, me thTodos and approaches was due to two aspects of the uniqueness of the Classicp gerounded theory (Glaser, 1978, 1992) approach related to this specific study: a C  The theory is based upon opaftterns found in empirical data, not on inferences, prejudices, oir tthye association of ideas, rs  There is constiavnte ongoing comparison between emergent theory (codes and construncts) and new data. Constant comparison confirms that theoreticUal constructs are found across and between data samples, thus driving the collection of additional data until the researcher feels that “theoretical saturation” (the point of diminishing returns from any new analysis) has been reached. A fourth reason for the choice of CGTM was because it provides a flexible set of inductive strategies for collecting and analysing data, is a comparative and interactive method, starts with gathering focused data and stays close to the data- 23 developing concepts that synthesise and conceptualise the collected data. Glaser (1992) and Glaser & Strauss (1967) have outlined the key distinguishing characteristics of the CGTM research methodology as follows: a. Simultaneous involvement in the data collection and analysis phases of research b. Developing analytic codes and categories from data, not from preconceived hypotheses c. Constructing middle-range theories to understand anwd enxplain behaviour and processes To d. Memo-writing, that is, analytic notes to exppliceate and fill out categories a e. Making comparisons between fs eCts of data, data and concept, and between different concepts ty o f. Theoretical samplingr, sthait is sampling for theory construction to check and refine concepituvael categories, not for representativeness of a given populatioUn n g. Delaying the literature review until after the emergence of a core variable. In order to abide with all tenets of CGTM, the researcher was accessible to CGTM mentoring throughout the research process. The researcher was accessible via a number of methodology publications, interactions with leading IS Scholars, face-to-face meetings with mentors and a vibrant on-line CGT research community. Thus, both the distinguishing characteristics of CGTM and the researcher's 24 accessibility to a CGT mentoring process, have made it the most appropriate research methodology for a study of the main concerns of e-learning providers in East Africa. 1.5. The Researcher's Professional Concern Two of the researcher‟s professional concerns as enumerated by Glaser (1999b) motivated the researcher to embark on this study and to choose classic Grounded Theory methodology. Firstly, for the past many years, the researcher had lacked the ability to conceptualize data, the ability to tolerate certain confusinons in his career and the ability to tolerate the regression attendant on this coonwfusion. Therefore the researcher was looking for a research methodology w hTich held the possibility of developing such abilities in his future career. Apfteer an extensive search for a methodology to help develop such abilitie a sC, the researcher recognized Classic Grounded Theory methodology as bein go sfuch a methodology. To sum up with the argument of Glaser (1999b:836-8i4t5y), the motivation behind those using Classic Grounded Theory among otheerrss is to develop three things: 1. Ability ton coinvceptualise data U 2. Ability to tolerate some confusion 3. Ability to tolerate confusion's attendant regression. Glaser (1999b:836-845) The researcher came progressively to learn and understand classic Grounded Theory and to the decision to use this methodology in this study. 25 Secondly, in 2007 the Government of Tanzania appointed the researcher as the just Associate Director of e-learning based at the Open University of Tanzania. One of the contributions made by the researcher to the Government of Tanzania in e- learning was to write a successful e-learning funding proposal, which was accepted by the Swedish Program for ICTs in Developing countries (SPIDER) for funding. The funding helped the researcher to establish a national e-learning centre. The centre was officially opened by the Deputy Minister of Information and Communication Technology, Dr Mau Daftari, in May 2007. The researcher was able to witness how the universities whanve been and are struggling to implement e-learning projects. Some of th eTse oprojects fail, some are approved, and of these only a few have managed ptoe survive. The researcher was keen to discover the reasons for this failure ina the context of the government‟s attempts to encourage the universities too imf p Clement e-learning (Ndume et al., 2008) in spite of the insistence of Alvi andt Lyei dner (2001) that the importance of e-learning will grow right across the edruscaition spectrum from primary to higher learning institutions (HEIs) in devevloeping countries (East African being one of them). The increase in the numbenr oif institutions implementing e-learning in East Africa has not been matched by Uan increase in the professionalism and competence required to ensure the effective delivery of sustainable e-learning projects. Even taking into consideration that all the states of East Africa have large populations and very limited education infrastructures, and are supported by even fewer E-learning providers to teach in such institutions, the benefits of both e-learning and on-line learning are self-evident. The researcher come progressively to begin to understand the main concern of e-learning providers working in East Africa, and this embryonic understanding was the beginning of this study. 26 1.6. Thesis Outline This thesis will comprise of eight chapters. Chapter 2 presents an explanation of and justification for the use of CGT in the study. This will cover the stages and procedures of CGT, the basic philosophical underpinnings of CGT, substantive versus formal theory, ontology and epistemology, GT labelling confusion, and the characteristics of CGT. How transparency is maintained in CGT research and the criteria for evaluating CGT research will be outlined. In Chapter 3, the Research Design and Approach based on Classic Grounded Theory Methodology will be comprehensively analysed. In Chapter 4, the contextual literatuwre non e-learning will be comprehensively analysed. In Chapter 5, the em eTrgeonce of the Theory of Cultivating Recognition will be discussed by exampinieng all the emerged variables. Chapter 6 details the comparative literature areview of the emerged theory, “Cultivating Recognition" theory. In chaoptefr 7C, a critical evaluation of the research methodology used will be presentedt,y in cluding all the possible pitfalls and how these were monitored and resolved.r sFinially, Chapter 8 will detail the contribution of the study to the existing knowvledege of e-learning and its implementation. i 1.7. SumUmnary This chapter forms the introduction and background to the study. The first section covers issues related to the background to the study. The second section presents a discussions of which Grounded theory is used in this study and why. The final section details the researcher's professional concerns relating to this study. The following chapter will constitute a detailed explanation and discussion of Classic Grounded Theory Methodology (CGTM). 27 Chapter 2 Classic Grounded Theory Methodology 2.1. Introduction The chapter provides an explanation of and justification for the use of Classic Grounded Theory Methodology (CGTM) in this study. Introduction n Ontology & Basic w epistemology Philoosophy T pe Stages & a Procedures of C Substantive Research CGTM Vs Formal Design & ity Theory Approach rs Evaluating ive Coding CGTM n Data research U CGTM Creating & Characteristics Sustaining Transparency Summary Figure 2: Argument Structure of Chosen Research Methodology 28 As Figure 2 above shows, the chapter has ten main sections. It will begin with an explanation of ontology and epistemology related to this study. The second section consists of a brief discussion of the basic philosophy underpinning the theory and methodology. The third section will outline the stages and procedures involved and followed using CGTM. The fourth section of the chapter will discuss the merits and pitfalls of using CGTM substantive theory versus formal theory. In the fifth section the specific characteristics of CGTM will be described and clarified. The sixth section will present the method of coding data in the process of using the CGTM approach to research. The seventh section will describe ways of creawtingn and sustaining transparency in the process of using CGTM. The eighth secotion details and clarifies certain legitimate criteria for evaluating CGTM reseea rTch. This chapter draws substantially from Glaser‟s work including Glaaserp & Strauss (1967) and Glaser (1978; 1992; 1996; 1998; 1999a; 1999b; 20f0 1C; 2003; 2005; 2006; 2008; 2009; 2011) o 2.2. Ontology and Epistteym i ology: Classic Grounded Theory Philosorpshical and Methodological Questions Since the discovery ivof eCGTM in 1967, many authors have explained and discussed ontologUicanl and epistemological stances, labelling such research paradigms positivism9, interpretivism10 and criticalism (Burton-Jones 2009; 9 Positivism is an epistemology and a research paradigm which builds on the ontological realist assumptions of existence, where the subjective reality and the subjective techniques of enquiry about the truths are dismissed, and instead an objective reality is assumed (Burke, 2007) 10 Interpretivism asserts that reality, and our knowledge thereof, is a social product and hence incapable of being understood independently of the social actors (including the researchers) that construct and make sense of that reality. (Orlikowski & Baroudi, 1991: 13) 29 Campbell & Russo 2001; Cupchik 2001; Mingers 2001; Burrel & Morgan 1979; Fitzgerald & Howcroft, 1998b; Adolph, et al., 2008)). Ontology is the term for an assumption or group of assumptions about „perceived reality‟ (Burrell & Morgan 1979; Fitzgerald & Howcroft, 1998). This means that Ontology is the study of being - essentially studying questions of what kinds of entities exist. Ontology is viewed as a formal representation of „knowledge‟ by a set of concepts within a domain, and the relationships between those concepts (Fitzgerald & Howcroft, 1998). The ontological question is whether 'reality' is objective, single and external to the individual, or in other wordws, an given, or taken- for-granted 'out there' in the world, or whether it is subje cTtiveo, with multiple realities that exist as subjective constructions of the mind (Fiptzgeerald & Howcroft, 1998). Epi a stemology is the branch of philosoph yC that is concerned with the “nature of knowledge its possibility scope an do gfeneral bias”(Honderich 1995, p.242). Epistemological questions are groiutnyded in knowledge and on communicating this reality that exists out theree irn sthe world. Positivism as an epistemology and a research paradigm, buildisv on the ontological realist assumptions of existence, where the subjective realUity annd the subjective techniques of enquiry about the truths are dismissed. Instead an objective reality is assumed (Burke, 2007). Positivism is premised on the supposed 'existence of the existence of a prior relationships within phenomena‟ (Orlikowski & Baroudi, 1991:5). Positivism is aligned with experimental and quasi-experimental design, using the rules of formal logic and the rules of deductive logic (Howcroft & Trauth, 2005). It often follows hypothesis formulation and the testing of theories, focusing on enabling predictions and generalisations about a phenomenon (Myers, 1997). 30 Primarily ontological concerns Primarily epistemological concerns The researcher's theoretical lens The research problem The researcher's skills The degree of uncertainty surrounding the phenomena Academic politics Table 3: Epistemological and Ontological Concerns (Source: Myers, 1997) n Fitzgerald & Howcroft (1998) argue that the realism11o, pwositivism12, and the nomothetic13 beliefs of a researcher position the reseea rTcher as a positivist, while nominalism, antipositivism, and ideographic belieafs cponstitute an interpretivist view of reality or the world. While logical positivismf aCnd post-positivism are two versions of the positivist school, critical theorists a nod constructivists belong to the interpretivist school, constructing four major rietsyearch paradigms with their respective purists (Fitzgerald & Howcroft, 1998e). r s The rapid increasne iivn the use of the Grounded Theory Method (GTM) in Information SystemUs (IS) research (Matavire & Brown, 2011), raises more confusion 11 12 Positivism as an epistemology and a research paradigm, builds on the ontological realist assumptions of existence, where the subjective reality and the subjective techniques of enquiry about the truths are dismissed, and instead an objective reality is assumed (Burke, 2007) 13 Nomothetic research attempts to discover what those systems of laws or principles are, while idiographic research is interested in describing only a single event, person, or situation. Since it is interested in discovering the laws or principles that govern aspects of reality, nomothetic research cannot depend on information that describes a single individual (Fitzgerald & Howcroft, 1998). 31 around its ontological and epistemological assumptions. This could be as a result of GTM being applied in different ways and for different purposes in the IS field, ranging from the use of the method as it is classically understood, to combining Grounded Theory techniques with other methods (Urquhart, 1997). Charmaz (2006), and Laird (1985) argue that these confusions are associated with the method‟s ontological and epistemological underpinning as discussed in following sections on the position Glaser (1978, 1992, 2002) has criticised grounded theory claims that contradict the openness of the classic grounded theory. While classic grnounded theory is presented as a general method, which can use any type of dataw and is not attached to any one theoretical perspective; such claims ( i.e. con stTrucotivist grounded theory, etc.) predetermine one particular lens through whichp toe analyse data. CGT is essentially ontologically and epi sCtemaologically neutral. As such, Glaser (2005) has argued that discussions of oontfology (what we believe about the world) and epistemology (how we can comitey to know what we know) are moot within classic grounded theory. Christianseenr (s2005:81-84) argues that classic GT is an "ontology free and epistemology frieve methodology”. Glaser (1978) furthermore reiterates that ontological assumUptionns have no place in the use of Classic GT since GT is grounded in data. Such an argument would consider epistemology (the theory of knowledge pertaining to knowing or „recognizing‟), as a mental activity and therefore having little place in the application and use of CGTM. Within social research, however, this position proves somewhat problematic, where there is an increasing expectation that researchers are explicit about their philosophical position (Grix, 2002). 32 Glaser‟s assertions that classic grounded theory is epistemologically and ontologically neutral have therefore been attacked as non-committal, naive and as perpetuating an “epistemological fairytale” (Bryant, 2009, para.13). Glaser (2004:76) argues that: “It is only a question of applying a rigorous and systematic method for discovering and explaining these patterns. Thus, just do it.” Glaser (1978:45) explains further that in the CGTM methodology all ontological and epistemological suppositions are irrelevant and are not usefwul: n o “... logical conjectures or preconceptions that p rTe-frame the research, and pre-framing has to be avoided in any CGTMp weork, in order to keep close to what the data has to say, and to disco vCer aand name emergent latent patterns in the data.” of The CGTM approach minimsizeist ythe influence and potential distorting effect of preconceptions, logical dedeuctrions and elaborations and ungrounded assumptions (Glaser, 1978). As a rensuilvt, a researcher using CGTM is free from both ontological & epistemological asUsumptions. While in CGT it is generally understood that substantive codes and categories emerge from the data – that is, they are not predetermined by a specific research question, extensive review of literature or rigid interview protocols – researchers have found it more difficult to grasp the notion of theoretical emergence (Holton, 2007). Rather than assuming a theoretical perspective in advance of the study, the classic grounded theorist stays open to theoretical codes from multiple theoretical 33 perspectives with which to organise the emergent theory (Glaser, 2005). Thus, for example, the constructivist view is only one way of looking at the data. While a constructivist perspective may be highly appropriate for particular studies, it must emerge to have relevance rather than being predetermined at the outset. Thus, “where grounded theory takes on the mantle for the moment of prepositivist, positivist, postpositivist, postmodernism, naturalism, realism etc, will be dependent on its application to the type of data in a specific research” (Glaser, 2005, p. 145). In classic grounded theory, the theoretical perspective is thus specific to each study, unlike the constructivist version which pre-frames the lens thrwougnh which data are processed. To While the CGT methodology is not definedp bey one particular theoretical perspective, the emergent theoretical producCt oaf a study will be situated within a particular perspective based on the emoerfg ence of appropriate theoretical codes. Typically, theoretical perspective iys implicit within the presentation of classic grounded theory studies. Alrthsouigth there is increasing expectation within the qualitative domain that revseearchers are explicit about the philosophical position of their studies, within clanssiic grounded theory, as a general inductive methodology that strives for abstracUt conceptualisation, this is not considered necessary (Holton, 2007). Within the current climate of social research, this philosophical position will undoubtedly continue to be subject to much debate. It is certainly a debate in which classic grounded theorists need to be more involved. Amidst such debate, however, it is important to note that a preoccupation with the ontological and epistemological issues of grounded theory may distract from the simplicity of its purpose: to generate a theory from the data that fits, works and is relevant within the area from which it was derived. As such, Bryant (2009) has suggested that the epistemological 34 differences between grounded theory versions may be reconciled if researchers focused less on the nature of the process, and more on the product: the key issue becomes the extent to which their substantive research produces conceptual innovations and theoretical insights that prove useful …the ultimate criterion for good research is that it makes a difference (para. 102). This is indicative of a wider concern with the pragmatics, rather than the philosophy, of research. Although this is another area in which there is much debate, particularly surrounding the ontological compatibility of different penrspectives, there is a rapidly growing interest in the use of mixed methodoolowgies which seek to combine different philosophical positions as a meanes o fT best answering research questions (Duncan & Nicol, 2004). In light of tahisp current progression towards a combinist approach in research, particula rlyC in health, the potential for classic grounded theory to assume any theore tiocafl perspective may soon be more willingly embraced. In attempting to addresist tyhe real concerns of participants, using whatever perspectives and methods ewilrl sbest address the purposes of the research, classic grounded theory is perihvaps more aligned with the direction in which modern healthcare researcUh ins travelling; seeing philosophical positions not as discrete, incompatible opposites, but as offering multiple and complementary approaches to understanding social phenomena. In summary, Glaser (2005, pp5-6) argues that: “The quest for an ontology and epistemology for justifying GT is not necessary. It will take these on from the type of data it uses for a particular research FOR THAT RESEARCH ONLY. GT is simply an inductive model for research. It is a paradigm for discovery of what is going on in any particular arena. It provides a global view by “providing a method of solving the puzzle 35 of viewing human experience and of structuring reality.” Wendy Guthrie, “Keeping Client In Line” (1998).. Whether GT takes on the mantle for the moment of prepositivist, positivist, postpositivist , postmodernism, naturalism , realism etc, will be dependent on its application to the type of data in a specific research” (pp 5-6) However, if researchers choose to use other methodologies, ontological and epistemological diversity would be acceptable. The contribution made in this thesis to CGTM is summarized nin two key issues raised by Glaser in terms of potential problems with GT (Glasoer,w 1978:1998): T (1) To delimit the study to the mpaein concern and its recurrent solution to the e-learning proaviders(the core variable), and C (2) To prevent the rese aorcfher‟s preconceived professional concerns from masking iotry distorting what actually goes on in the field of study. ers The first point provnideivs a particular solution to the problem of the “many equally justifiable interpretUations of the data” (Glaser, 1978). The second point refers to how the determination is accomplished. Christiansen (2005) cites Hartman (2001:37) in support of point (2) by pointing out that: “Inductive principle applied in orthodox GT is not the usual one, or the inductive principle used in other qualitative or in hermeneutic research approaches. The induction applied in orthodox GT is basically assumption- free and only assumption-based when these assumptions are grounded in the 36 data, i.e. are tantamount to what already has emerged as more or less stable patterns in the data” This means that there is “a Classic GT form of induction”, which is different to other approaches that have claimed to be using GT and which further explains how point (2) is accomplished. Glaser (1978) considers that the procedure of “conceptualizing while constantly comparing” may be the most important single principle in CGTM. The application of this principle makes points (1) and (2) operative as parts of procedures or as stages of research, and it also makes their interrelationships operative. Thus, when compared to qualiwtativne or qualitative- descriptive-analytic or hermeneutic research procedures , TCGoTM differs significantly with regard to the collection and treatment of pquealitative data. The points of dissimilarity of CGTM to a priori-deductive andC hyapo-deductive research approaches are equally obvious and need no furthoer fe xplanation. That the CGTM is itself a grounded theory also means thatt yth e methodology has itself been inductively developed rather than being lrosgicially derived or “thought up”(Glaser, 1978; 1992; 1998). ive In theoretical saUmpnling deduction is only based on what the data so far has to say and it is done to enable conceptual elaboration (Glaser 1978). In theoretical coding deduction is a question of recognizing known theoretical codes in the data. However, a possible theoretical code is only included if it is indicated in the data by interchangeable data indicators. Glaser (1992) argues that it is a mistake for any CGTM researcher to consider her or himself as being “objective”: no person can become a “tabula rasa”. Minimizing pre-understanding and logical deduction does not mean eliminating or excising these factors. It means suspending them 37 temporarily, or at least attempting to prevent, or minimise their interference with what the data indicates. The mind-set of the researcher needs to be open like that of an innocent and humble child, but should at the same time be highly sensitive theoretically (Glaser 1978). Subconscious processing on the part of the researcher may also play a role. The ability of a researcher to generate theory from data is the key tenet of CGTM. Allowing space for the main concern of the participants to emerge is paramount, as is allowing its related sub-patterns to emerge. Ideally these patterns will emerge whilst the researcher is skilfully analysing and synthesising the data. However, such emergence can only occur if the researchewr anllows it to happen naturally (Glaser, 1998). If the main focus is not on theoreotical pre-understanding regarding concepts and their relationships, emergencee cTan take place. Intervening preconceptions can take the researcher‟s focus aandp awareness away from what the data has to say. These preconceptions s hCould be consciously suspended and should not be allowed to intervene and doistfort what the data is able to reveal (Glaser 1978, 1992, 1998). ityrs A CGTM is asymptvoteic, meaning that the theory, the outcome of the methodological treatmnenit is grounded in data (Glaser 1992). New data may move the asymptote highUer or closer to the “truth line”. CGT is modifiable and it is meant to be modifiable (Glaser, 1998, 2006). It is a methodology to facilitate the progress of understanding the main concern and how it is resolved from no understanding, or pre-understanding, to ever higher levels of post understanding, through recurrent cycles of understanding (Glaser, 2007). CGTM research is a never-ending process (Glaser, 1978) because even when a robust core variable does emerge new data could be discovered which could mean that the original core variable will have to be modified. The credibility of the interrelated hypotheses of a generated grounded 38 theory is based on their integration and grounding in data, and thus is dependent on the extent and reliability of the grounding. Glaser (1992) argues that the core variable must be able to account for most of the variation in the data and should also be modifiable. Its modifiability also gives it inherent potential to increase understanding of the substantive area. Modifiability of a core variable is not the same as its being made groundless. If the latter is the case it is indicative of something having gone wrong in the research process (Glaser, 1992). If methodological treatments of new data for emergence fit with the grounded theory, this may start the process of modification. Concepts generatewd inn the course of a CGTM research project are often of such a compositiono that they have to be considered as multidimensional and multivariate qualiteati veT variables (Glaser, 1992). Most qualitative variables can be conceived ain pmathematical or mathematical- statistical terms. We may even talk abouft aC kind of qualitative mathematics. For example, a very simple and very clear- cuot social norm could be conceived as a one- dimensional qualitative or ordinal istcyale variable with a certain average and certain standard deviation. Not to ebe rdseviating may mean to be observed within a given “confidence interval” (Gnlaisver, 1978, 1992, 1998). A more complex social norm could be conceived of aUs having many dimensions. Each of these dimensions may be conceived of as a kind of “qualitative” or ordinal scale variable. Thus, a grounded theory may be conceived of as a multivariate theory: as a highly complex theory (Glaser, 2006). However, in classic grounded theory only those dimensions that directly emerge from the sampled data are specified. This makes it possible to handle the inherent complexity of the data. As a predominantly inductive methodology, with some deductive elements, the CGT methodology may share 39 some of the traits of some other methodologies that may be different from it in most other respects (Glaser, 1978, 1992, 1998, 2007). 2.3. The Basic Philosophy Underpinning Classic Grounded Theory Methodology Classic Grounded Theory Methodology (CGTM) was founded by Glaser and Strauss in 1967. At the time they considered this new research methodology to be a necessary challenge and alternative to the ungrounded and unquestioned “great men” theories being presented to students at academic institutions: wn “Many of our teachers converted departments …T inoto mere repositories of “great man” theories and taught these theoripes ewi th a charismatic finality that students could seldom resist. Currently, staudents are trained to master “great- man” theories and to test them in fs mCall ways, but hardly to question the theory as a whole in terms oyf itos position or manner of generation…some theories of our predecersssorist, because of their lack of grounding in data, do not fit, or do not wvorke, or are not sufficiently understandable to be used and are therefore nusieless in research, theoretical advance and practical application” U(Glaser & Strauss, 1967:10-11). In 1998 Glaser developed and expanded his theoretical position of the sixties, putting the case for a grounded theory which was more reliable than previous theories, was designed to minimize preconceptions and assumptions and to address “the main concern”: “A methodology was needed that could get through and beyond conjecture and preconception to exactly the underlying processes of what is 40 going on so that professionals and laymen alike could intervene with confidence to help resolve the participants‟ main concern surrounding learning, pain and profit. In this sense, grounded theory has put vested social structures in some jeopardy, because the dependent variables are vital to work with; hence, it is hard to ignore grounded theory results.” (Glaser, 1998:5) Glaser (1998:115) argued that a researcher using Grounded Theory “... tries to understand the action in a substantive arean from the point of view of the actors involved. This understanding revoolvwes around the main concern of the participants whose behaviour ceon tiTnually resolves their main concern. Their continual resolving is the coarep variable”. The main objective of CGTM is to f dCiscover a robust empirically derived hypothesis or core variable through ay s poecific process. The core variable articulates the main concern of the respo t rnsdeints. It is so called because the core variable is able to explain most of thev veariations in the data. The particular feature of the CGTM is that it is transcendennti of both time and place (Glaser, 1978, 1992, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2008, 2009)U. According to Glaser this is made possible due to the fact that CGTM delivers a conceptual explanation rather than a low level descriptive context- based narrative. Thus the emerged grounded theory must „pay its way‟ by being able to demonstrate that it represents the main concern of those participants who are the subjects of the research. Glaser (1992:15) outlines and explains the four central characteristics of CGT, emphasising the value to the research process of its “modifiability”: 41 "There are only four central criteria with which to evaluate CGT: fit, work, relevance and modifiability. If a grounded theory is carefully induced from the substantive area its categories and their properties will fit the realities under study in the eyes of the subjects, practitioners and researchers in the area. If a grounded theory works it will explain the major variations in behaviour in the area with respect to the processing of the main concerns of the subjects. If it fits and works the grounded theory has achieved relevance. The theory itself should not be written in stone or as a „pet‟; it should be readily modifiable when new data present variation in emnergent properties and categories. The theory is neither verified nor throownw out; it is modified to accommodate by integration the new conceptse. W Then these four criteria are met, then of course, the theory provides aa copnceptual approach to action and changes and accesses into the fs uCbstantive area researched.” (Glaser, 1992:15) y o Glaser (2009) expresses rergsreit tthat some researchers claim to be using CGTM, whereas they have simpvly eborrowed the powerful language of CGTM in order to legitimise their work wnithiout following all the tenets of CGTM. This has given rise to and perpetuated coUnfusion among researchers, sponsors and institutions as to how to evaluate CGTM research based projects. Glaser (1998) explains the ways in which CGTM is a latent pattern indicator. It achieves this by revealing respondents' deep seated habitual tendencies. These tendencies will exist in respondents whether or not they participate in the research. These tendencies are difficult to reveal because the respondents are often unaware of them, even though they may constitute an important part of their daily behaviour. 42 According to Glaser (1998), CGTM is a multivariate process which happens sequentially, subsequently, simultaneously, serendipitously and in a scheduled manner. It is the systematic generation of theory from data acquired by a rigorous research method (Glaser, 1978, 1992, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2008, 2009). In essence grounded theory is an integrated set of conceptual hypothesis, i.e. probability statements about the relationship between concepts. The hypothesis is generated through constant coding and analysing of data. CGTM is a general research method which is not evidence based (Glaser, 1978, 1998). This is because the use of evidentiary data presupposes that a deductive hypothesis basewd rensearch method is being employed. Thus CGTM is a general research moethod which is mainly inductive. Glaser explains why it is inappropriate and uenp rToductive to treat CGTM as though it were evidence based: ap "The credibility of the theory shofu lCo d be won by its integration, relevance and workability, not by illusttryat ions as if it were proof. The theory is an integrated set of hyporthsesies, not of findings. Proofs are not the point." (Glaser, 1978:134)v i e 2.4. Classic UGrnounded Theory Methodology Stages and Procedures Although there are very specific stages through which the CGTM researcher must go, the order of doing them will change according to what emerges from the data. This kind of flexibility in terms of sequence and process is necessary in order to reveal certain deep seated patterns of human behaviour. The structure of CGTM will be outlined in the Section 2.4.1 to 2.4.8 below. 43 2.4.1. Generating Theoretical Sensitivity It is essential that the researcher, prior to embarking on any CGTM research, develop theoretical sensitivity. What this entails is explained by Glaser (1978). Since there are already in existence literally hundreds of patterns of human behaviour, having a repertoire of these before embarking the research is absolutely essential. The following are some of the examples of theoretical codes:  Causal consequence models (cause, consequences, contexts, contingencies, co variances and conditions) wn  Process models (stages, phases, polarity, pro gTresosions, temporal pacing and cycling) e ap  Degree models (cutting points, Cprobability, polarity, continuum and intensity) f ty o  Asymptote models (mrasthiematical models for getting as close as possible) e  Isomorphismn i(mvathematical models how one established theory can trigger a Unew theory)  Moment capture (business models which explain how many financial services operate) If armed with a repertoire of theoretical codes it is easier for the CGTM researcher to start making sense of data. 44 2.4.2. Theoretical Sampling This is a form a sampling in which it is both inappropriate and impossible, prior to doing the research, to state exactly what data will be needed (Glaser, 1978, 1998, 2006). This is because the sampling process can only cease once the core variable has emerged. The researcher samples data until s/he discovers the main concern of the respondents. The researcher then samples within a chosen group and demographic area for integrating into the research the newly emerged concept. Once the researcher reaches the point where no further patterns emerge, the data is said to be saturated and the core variable to have emerged (Glawsern, 1978, 1998). o According to the CGTM, theoretical sampling is a pr oTcess of data collection for generating theory whereby the researcher simpulteaneously generates, codes, analyzes and synthesizes data and uses t hCis aas a basis to decide what data to collect next and where to find them (Golafser, 1978). The researcher begins by selecting a context for the researcithy. A series of short conversations with a small number of respondents is thenr sset in motion. There are two reasons for this. Firstly, a high level of rappoirvt emust be established between the researcher and respondent(s) so thUat ntrust and respect can develop. This cannot happen easily with single encounters. Secondly, the researcher should not make use of any form of recording or note taking throughout the whole process of conversation/research with the respondent(s) encounter (Glaser, 1978). This both deepens the researcher/respondent trust and also increases the level of the researcher‟s concentration. Immediately following all encounters with respondents, the researcher should document the interaction using theoretical memos (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Glaser, 1978). 45 2.4.3. Theoretical Memos This section highlights the theoretical memos as has been discussed by Glaser (1998). Theoretical memos as described by Glaser (1978:83) are “the theorising write up of ideas about codes and their relationships as they strike the analyst while coding”. They are the means to abstraction and ideation and can be used continually throughout the CGTM process. Initially a theoretical memo may consist of a short sentence, but as the analysis proceeds, the memo is updated annd developed and can be several pages long (Glaser, 1998). Theoretical memoosw are a crucial part of the GT method for six main reasons. Firstly, the theoreti cTal memo is a device which allows the researcher to use both deductive and indpucetive logic in order to reveal the deep seated latent patterns of human behavioCr wa hich the GT method is designed to reveal. Secondly, theoretical memos oenfcourage the researcher to enter into a dialogue with her/his data. This mietayns that GT researcher can interrogate the data to assess the veracity of emrersging theoretical concepts. Thirdly, the theoretical memo enables the GT irveseearcher to move from low level descriptive coding to higher level theoreUticanl coding. The transition from description to conceptual coding cannot happen without theoretical memo-ing. Fourthly, theoretical memos are very important because they are the main means by in which the GT researcher can understand how to carry out the most appropriate theoretical sampling strategy. Theoretical sampling is necessary in the GT research process because it ensures that the researcher looks beyond the obvious descriptive narrative to an understanding of what the main concerns of those being researched are. Fifthly, the GT method, for the researcher, is a delayed action phenomenon because it is 46 impossible for any researcher to immediately understand all aspects of his/her data on a single examination of the data. In other words, the process during which the GT researcher is engaged in the simultaneous writing of several theoretical memos allows the researcher's own though processes to reach insights in those partially completed theoretical memos which s/he is not currently involved in writing. This is because the mind is highly discursive and is always attempting to make sense of phenomena; but this takes time. Sixthly, when the researcher is engaged in the simultaneous writing of theoretical memos the possibility of the cross fertilization of new ideas and concepts is stimulated or triggered. This serenwdipnitously stimulates the discovery of new ideas and concepts (Glaser, 1978; 1992o; 1998). T In short any research which claims to have usepd ethe GT research method and does not make full use of the theoretical memao will have failed to accurately or substantially reveal the main concerns ofo thfo s Ce being researched (Glaser, 1978). 2.4.4. Substantive Coding sit y These are the very firste arttempts at highlighting those data which the analyst believes may have imnporitvance for the research beyond the simple description of the context of the daUta (Glaser, 1978:1998). These codes are labelled and often „gerunded‟ (Glaser, 1978). In other words the researcher converts the substantive code label into a verb ending in “ing”. The purpose of this is to sensitise the researcher to the processes and patterns which may be revealed at a later stage (Glaser, 1978; 1998; 2006). Gerunding is effective because it introduces momentum into the data. 47 2.4.5. Theoretical Coding This is a conceptual code. It arises from the synthesis of the substantive codes. To move from substantive codes to theoretical codes is a tricky and often elusive process (Glaser, 1978). This synthesis can be effected by examining the interplay between the theoretical memos. This process is known as the constant comparison method (Glaser, 1978). At this point the researcher has to engage both intellect and intuition to achieve a shift in perspective from low level context based description, to higher level conceptual abstraction. n 2.4.6. The Constant Comparison Method ow When using the constant comparison method the reese aTrcher has to painstakingly look across all data in all theoretical memos to aloopk for various types of indicators which might reveal previously hidden connefc tiCons and patterns (Glaser, 1978; 1998). There is a hierarchy of processes involv eod in this research method. It starts with the recording of raw data in the thesoreitticyal memos and proceeds to substantive coding which is then fractured intoe crategories and sub categories. These in turn have different properties (Gnlasievr, 1998). The term "properties" is not strictly relevant in the context of expUlaining the constant comparison method. "Properties" is a more appropriate descriptor to apply to the writing of theoretical memos (Glaser, 1978). If the researcher believes that some elements of an emergent pattern might be approaching the brink of discovery s/he could return to the data [or perhaps the respondent for another encounter] and try and establish what the properties of a particular concept concerned are. For instance the properties of “legitimizing” in this research were “reciprocity”, “asymmetry” and “networking”. So properties are another word for characteristics and as such are not exclusively linked with the 48 constant comparative method. Thus both the categories, as well as the properties, are constantly compared across all the theoretical memos. As this process begins to gather momentum theoretical codes begin to emerge. What begins as a property of a category of a substantive code sometimes emerges as a theoretical code in its own right. Only through a process of constantly comparing the data for differences and similarities can theoretical codes emerge (Glaser, 1978). The exceptions to this are those rare occasions when the respondent is an articulate conceptualizer and is able to step back from personal context and give an authentic explanation of the main concern (Glaser, 1978, 1998). wn 2.4.7. Sorting To This is an iterative process which occurs at pthee later stages of the CGTM process. Sorting will ensure that the emerg inCg taheoretical codes have earned their place in the emergent process of theory ocrefation (Glaser, 1978). If sorting does not take place several times it is unlikietlyy th at the research will move much beyond low level narrative description (Glarsser, 1978, 1998). The principle aim of sorting is to ensure that the emergingiv coere variable has been fully saturated and has earned its place in the researcUh pnrocess (Glaser, 1978). 2.4.8. The Emergence of the Core Variable The core variable is so called because it is able to account for most of the variation in the data (Glaser, 1978). It is the main concern of the respondents translated and carried on to the conceptual level. There are frequently also sub-core variables which feed into the core variable (Glaser, 1978, 1998). 49 2.5. Substantive versus Formal Theory Glaser (1978:142-157) warns on the dangers of using CGTM in a substantive rather than a delimited research area: CGTM is mostly applied in research within a delimited area of human concern – or within a delimited substantive area. To use the methodology to generate a more formal theory that covers many substantive areas could be more problematic, but not impossible. It is possible to apply CGTM to generate macro-economic owr mnacro-sociological theories and there are various examples of this, includTingo Sorokin (1937:25-29; 2006), who managed to find a core variable in a steudy of the social and cultural dynamics of civilisations through time. Becausea ofp the core variable, the theory is characterised by both parsimony and scopfe Cas Lee (2002a, 2002b) demonstrated when CGTM was used within the coynte xot of macroeconomics, thus contributing to a GT through identification of ther csoriet variable. 2.6. Special Chairvaceteristics of Grounded Theory n The two main U“hallmarks” of the CGT methodology are: (1) “finding the core variable first” and then delimiting the rest of the work to what is closely related to the core variable, and (2) “the special Classic GT form of induction”, which is used constantly and in all tasks with the exception of theoretical sampling and recognition of theoretical codes (Glaser, 1978; 1998). Then there is a third element: the pivotal procedure (3) involving “constantly comparing while coding (conceptualising)”, which in a sense also applies in memo writing and sorting, and which is always used in conjunction with (2). Then there is a fourth (4), the procedure of “memo writing”, and 50 (5) the procedure of “sorting” (Glaser, 1978). Many other features are involved in a CGTM process, such as “interchangability of indices” and “explication de text”. Glaser (1998:24-25) describes the circumstances of his exposure to „explication of text‟ at the University of Paris, for him “a major root in the discovery of grounded theory" and explains the process and purpose of explication of text‟ in grounded theory. It involves: ““ ... reading closely line by line to ascertain what exactly the author is saying without imputing what was said, interpreting int or reifying its meaning……Explication de text helps the researcher wwho is doing constant comparisons to generate concepts that closely fitT woithout imputation as to what is going on in the substantive area, wphilee at the same being able to claim the authorship of the concept Che agenerated”...… So the message I received was to read and compaoref line by line and then to take credit for one‟s generated, emerged cotnyce pts – not disavow it and give it away. . i 2.7. Coding Data foerr Esmergent Fit with Previously Groundedn Tihveory Classic GT as Uexplained by the co-originator of GT Dr Barney Glaser (1978, 1992, 1998) is a latent pattern identifier. It is not evidence based but instead these latent patterns are revealed by the discovery of the main concerns of those being researched. These main concerns are continually being resolved by the respondents whether they have been revealed by research or not. The main concerns are not the respondents‟ narratives per se, but rather their motivations behind their narratives. Because of this the use of the Classic GT method means that emergent theory is transcendent of both time and place. The theoretical 51 explanations of human behavior which GT reveals will also be applicable across a wide range of different contexts. The product of any GT research project is a robust hypothesis which can be modified as new data comes to light. As a result CGTM has two basic models for studies discussed in Glaser(1978):  The first model is by pure discovery of all the concepts by going thorough the prescribed procedures; and  The second model is “starting from scratch”. n Glaser (1978) ow The first model is the emergent fit model and appliees t hTe same procedures as the second model, but does not “start from scratcah”p. It proceeds from a previously generated CGT and its substantive concepfts .C The second model is especially suited to an advanced user of a generated CG To who would want to scrutinise the extent to which a theory, which has beens gitenyerated from a given set of data from a given substantive area, fits his/heer drata from the same or another substantive area. The use of this second mondeil vrequires a minimum level of familiarity with the CGTM. For advanced users ofU Classic GTM in business (e.g. business consultants, who have been trained in the use of the methodology), the modification and refinement of any generated CGT may be applied within any area of study including the area of business. The second model may become an option for a researcher in the business field, as well as a „funnelling down‟ on some company-specific issues. Use of this second model needs to be embarked upon with care since potential pitfalls exist. In the case of an analyst who has some basic knowledge from data gathered from research and analysed, and that has already generated and wishes to extend, or use 52 some grounded formal theory to analyse the data, Glaser & Holton (2005:18) sound a warning. They caution those following rigidly a research model through with “pre- emergent analytic thinking” without reassessing and making constant comparisons throughout the process: “The second model looks a bit like deductive, logical elaboration, but it is not, providing the analyst follows the grounded approach. S/he does not start “empty” or “non-preconceived” as in the first model. S/he engages in pre- emergent analytic thinking, and sampling before approachning the field. But once in the field, s/he starts correcting early thougwhts and follows the grounding in subsequent theoretical sampling. A nTd os/he ends up as s/he would in the first model, searching for comppaerison groups, as it becomes clearer and clearer where to go for Cfit aas the theory develops” (Glaser & Holton (2005:18) of The second model equates to iat yGTM which begins with some pre-framed view on the part of the researcheer wrhso starts by trying out a particular set of interrelated concepts, while data is ivcollected and constantly compared. The second model saves time becausUe lanrge amounts of time will have been spent by the researcher using the first model. 2.8. Transparency in Classic Grounded Theory Methodology Throughout the process of CGTM research a researcher needs to maintain transparency. This section will posit ways of maintaining transparency during the research process. The five factors to be borne in mind by a researcher in attempting 53 to maintain transparency during CGTM research will be discussed in the following section. 2.8.1. Generating Theoretical Sensitivity Research which has used CGTM has revealed the extent to which the researcher prior to starting the project has been exposed to theoretical sensitivity. This sensitivity will become apparent from the skill with which the researcher deals with data (Glaser, 1998). 2.8.2. Theoretical Sampling wn The researcher has to explain clearly and specific aTllyo how and why her/his theoretical sampling has been constructed. Therep meust be a clearly stated logical argument as to the main reasons for any choicea of data. There should be no note taking or recording during the encounterso wfit h C respondents (Glaser, 1998). There are four main reasons iwthyy real-time note taking during the interactions with the respondents is to bee arvsoided in CGTM. Firstly, the absence of note taking allows the respondents tiov feel more relaxed and less threatened by their encounters with the researcherU. Snecondly, because the researcher is not taking any notes at the meeting s/he will have to make each encounter with a respondent fairly brief. This kind of time arrangement significantly assists the process of theory generation because it allows the researcher time to examine data reflectively before planning and arranging subsequent meetings. Thirdly, the CGTM is a delayed action process for both the respondent and the researcher. Thus having a series of brief interactions with the same respondent permits the development of concepts rather than generating simple descriptions. Fourth, the researcher is encouraged to make 54 notes immediately following the encounter with respondents rather than in real time, thus forcing the researcher to increase levels of concentration during the encounter rather than passively going through a check list of pre-determined questions with the respondent (Glaser, 1978, 1998, 2006). 2.8.3. Theoretical Memos and coding Although there is no standard template to which all theoretical memos must adhere, there are some basic issues which all theoretical memos must address (Glaser 1998). If these are not made explicit then the memnos would not be transparent to the reader nor would they be a legitimateo iwndicator of how the researcher progressed from raw data to an emerged c oTre variable. According to Lowe (1996), novice GT researchers should try to penesure that their memos contain the following to meet transparency requireme nCts: a f (1) Memo Tile y oit (2) Summary of any rsusbstantive codes, categories and properties e (3) Conceptunali vindicators [the important links that form the bridge from substUantive description to conceptual explanation] (4) Emergent theoretical codes, categories and properties (5) A statement as to the type of data the researcher believes has been given to him/her by the respondent [Baseline14, Properlined15, Vague16, 14 Baseline data - the respondent is being as truthful as possible, as far as the interviewer can gauge 55 Zero17, or interpreted18 data]. It actually does not matter at all when doing CGTM what type of data the researcher has because everything is data. If people are being untruthful for example that is probably more interesting than if they were being honest. What is of the utmost importance is that the researcher fully understands the type of data. (6) A clear separation of empirical data from conjecture data. Both are important in CGTM but they are quite different types of data and need to be treated accordingly. n (7) How has the data been fractured? Which ocownceptual theoretical perspectives has the researcher used toe b eTtter understand the latent patterns embedded in the data? ap (8) What links to other memos frofm C the researcher‟s bank of memos have been highlighted? y ot ers i i v 15 Properlined dataU - thne respondent deliberately edits the data so that it is not in conflict with the official line of argument of his employing authority. 16 Vague data - the respondent deliberately gives an indistinct version of reality to try and confuse the researcher, obfuscate the issue and throw the researcher off the scent. 17 Zero data - the respondent refuses to say anything at all in order to avoid saying anything which s/he might later regret. 18 Interpreted data- the respondent is filtering his/her messages either to deliberately complicate or to simplify her/his responses. 56 (9) What unanswered questions arising from the data will the researcher use in his next meeting with the respondent? (10) How have the theoretical concepts in each memo been constantly compared and then sorted? 2.8.4. The Constant Comparison Method and Sorting The reader of a CGTM thesis should easily be able to understand how and why both the constant comparison and sorting process have been operationalised (Glaser, 1998). There are now commercially available computewr snoftware packages which are designed to “speed up” these processes. HoweTveor Glaser (1996) strongly advises researchers to avoid their use. This is not foer reactionary reasons: that in Glaser‟s (1996) view the use of computer packaageps is “a creative cop out” (Glaser 1996). He gives four main reasons why fth eC use of computer software should be avoided when using CGT. (1) Comypu toer packages are excellent for dealing with very large volumes of data. If thse rietsearch is using CGTM correctly there should be no need for very large volumeesr of data because latent patterns can be detected from fairly small amounts onf divata, (2) In Glaser‟s (1996) view sorting done manually takes time, time thUat can be used creatively and productively by the researcher to reflect on the data itself. The CGTM is a delayed action phenomenon both for the researcher as well as the respondent, (3) when a CGTM researcher is faced with having to analyse a mass of data manually it can seem overwhelming and can create a degree of anxiety in the researcher. This anxiety can result in fear or some psychological regression. Thus the CGTM researcher needs to develop skills to cut through the uncertainty so that the authentic latent pattern emerges rather than being forced. To date computer packages are unable to do this, (4) none of the 57 currently available computer software packages have been written by those who fully understand the CGTM process. 2.8.5. The Emergence of the Core Variable It must be possible for the researcher to demonstrate a pathway through data, showing how the raw data emerge as the core variable (Glaser, 1978). Data in themselves should not be treated as evidence. Data should instead be presented in a transparent way so that the reader of the research can immediately understand how the core variable emerged (Lowe, 1998). wn 2.9. Criteria for Evaluating Classic GrouTndoed Theory Methodology research pe The grounded theory research method is aC geaneral inductive methodology which can be applied to all types of data, obfo th quantitative and qualitative, or the combination thereof as has been otuytlin ed by Glaser (1978, 1998). GT is not a sub set of Qualitative Data Analysisr s(QiDA). Therefore QDA criteria are inappropriate for the evaluation of researcihv doene using the grounded theory research method (Glaser, 1978). Un Glaser (1978, 1998, 2000, and 2001) gives explicit examples of the four main criteria with which to evaluate grounded theory study: fit, workability, relevance and modifiability. These criteria will be explored in the following section. 2.9.1. Fit If a concept can be said to be a ‟fit‟ it means that the concept adequately reflects the data that it purports to express. The categories of the emerged core variable 58 must fit the data used to create the theory. Ungrounded assumptions and data which have been forced to fit into preconceived concepts derail fit in CGTM, as well as invalidating the theory (Glaser, 1978). Although fit would appear to correspond to positivistic validity, it is fit in terms of CGTM action and usage, not as a result of testing (Glaser, 1998). Unlike research based on preconceptions, such as research conducted in order to test an hypothesis, in CGTM data which cannot be forced are discarded rather than used to correct the emerging categories. With CGTM only data „sorted‟ and used for developing theory can be said to constitute a fit (Glaser, 1978, 1998). The fit could be expressed as a „refit or an „emergent fit‟. n During research categories emerge fast, so the need arises to refit them to thoe wdata as the research proceeds and to be sure that they fit all of the data eth eTy purport to indicate, thus increasing and ensuring transparency. Categoraiesp can emerge between data and pre-existent categories (Glaser, 1978). of C 2.9.2. Workability ty i How the core variable accorusnts for the respondents‟ continual resolution of their main concern is a key ivisseue. The emergent GT must clearly explain what is happening, and thUe pnrocess of its happening, and by so doing should be able to predict future behaviour (Glaser, 1978, 1998, 2001). 2.9.3. Relevance How the emerged core variable has been received by the members of the constituency from which the data was drawn is also pertinent. Prior to the research it is very likely that respondents would be unable to articulate their main concern. 59 Once they have read the research they should instantly be able to recognize the emerged core variable as being authentic (Glaser, 1998). 2.9.4. Modifiability The CGT is considered to be modifiable if it is easy for subsequent CGTM researchers to be aware of what research has been done so far in the area, and to proceed to modify or refine the theory as they collect and code new data (e.g. code new data for emergent fit), without invalidating the theory. Various IS researchers posed certain questions on the iswsuen of transparency when using CGTM (Ndume et al 2008), these include: “HoTw coan research using CGT have a chain of „legitimate‟, „accurate‟ evidence? How eca n one reconcile this with the approach of not recording or taking notes in intervaiepws? How does one demonstrate, or substantiate the chain of evidence inf tChe process of moving from data to concept/theory?” Such questions asysu moe accuracy in the collection of evidence based data as a requirement fosr „aitccurate‟, „reliable‟, „legitimised‟ research (Ndume et al. 2008). r ive Since CGTM isU ann inductive research methodology it is appropriate to use a legitimate set of evaluation criteria as outlined by the CGT‟s co-orginator Glaser (1978). However there must be total transparency when using CGTM so that it can easily and clearly be seen how the emergent core variable arose. Glaser (2007:41-42) explains the reasons for the persistence of a level of misunderstanding of the CGTM amongst many academics and researchers: they continue to fail to distinguish clearly between "conceptual generalisations" and "descriptive generalisations": 60 "The constant comparative method [at the heart of CGT] was originated in 1967 to generate concepts by constantly comparing indicators of a latent pattern. After several comparisons the result is conceptually naming the pattern and its properties.....The category is abstract of time, place and people. The conceptual categories apply with emergent fit. The Formal CGT research generates categories that relate to each other as generalizations. In contrast descriptive comparisons are as old as research itself. They just compare differences and similarities and a sum of descnription of people's social actions in a unit of time. The concern is always waccuracy, that is, the researcher has worrisome accuracy t oT oconstantly contend with. Generalisations are difficult to make fropme one unit to another and even within the unit studied. These are theC proablems of accuracy of external and internal validity respectively of desocrifp tive generalizations. Conceptual generalizatiointsy do not have this validity problem. They just apply within a contexet arpsplied to with modification. For example, controlling clients by pseudivo-friending simply varies for client types and client conditions." Un Glaser (2009:15) gives a robust response to the continuing misconceptions regarding CGTM, as articulated by Bryant & Charmaz (2007:120), in particular the “worrisome accuracy” associated with data analysis and the failure of researchers to appreciate the value of the conceptual level of CGTM: "Data worries dominate the GT jargonizing of QDA issues in the Handbook. And why shouldn't it? Worrisome accuracy is the central issue of 61 QDA. QDA research has to yield accurate description, which puts an emphasis on analyzing the data used in any research every which way to see what, indeed, is being described and is verifiable. And furthermore how fast will the description get stale-dated and if it can be momentarily discursively generalized. This is a perennial, non-solvable problem. It totally neglects the conceptual level of GT, which is free of and abstract of place, time and people and hence free of worrisome accuracy. Comparisons generate a GT's constant concept modifiability.” Transparency of a fully grounded theory will be achieved onwly wnhen the reader is able to clearly see how the researcher progressed f roTmo raw data to the final integrated core variable (see section 2.8). ap e 2.10. Critique of Classic Grounf dCed Theory Methodology Since the discovery of Classic Groyu noded Theory methodology in 1967, it remains to be a methodology of debartes biyt the academic community. The most common criticism comes from acavdeemics who are practitioners of Symbolic Interactionism [SI]. These acadenmics make the claim that while the CGT method uses interpretivist and Uconstructionist tools, it stems from positivism/objectivism. It therefore suffers from internal misalignment (Bryant, 2002). Other points of criticism include naive inductionism (Bryant, 2002; Goulding, 2001), limitations on a priori knowledge (Bryant, 2002; Charmaz, 2006; Goulding, 2001), phenomenalism (Goulding, 2001), the paradox of „theory‟ (Bryant, 2002; Charmaz, 2006), limited theoretical generalisation (Burawoy, 1991; Nasirin, Birks, & Jones, 2003; Charmaz, 2006) and the epistemology and ontology stance (Charmaz, 2006; Burton-Jones 2009; Campbell & Russo 2001; Cupchik 2001; Mingers 2001; Burrel & Morgan 1979; 62 Fitzgerald & Howcroft, 1998b). Due to such critic, it has resulted in multiple modifications (including that of Strauss and Corbin of 1990) and approaches as discussed in section 1.3. Researchers have had differing ideas on the philosophical orientation of Classic Grounded Theory methodology (Matavire & Brown, 2011). Some view it as a positivist/objectivist method, due to the language used by Glaser and Strauss (1967) in their book titled „The Discovery of Grounded Theory‟. Terms like „emergence‟ and „discovery‟ suggest an objective realist perspective, accepting only one „true‟ reality (Locke, 2001). The main reason for this assumption probablyw liens in the fact that Glaser and Strauss established a strong argument fo rT ao structured method of qualitative analysis. As Charmaz (1990, p. 253) argupese that: a “ Glaser and Strauss‟s (1967) work w aCs revolutionary because it challenged (a) arbitrary divisions between the ooryf and research, (b) views of qualitative research as primarily a precuristoyr to more "rigorous" quantitative methods, (c) claims that the quest fore rirgosr made qualitative research illegitimate, (d) beliefs that qualitative methoidvs are impressionistic and unsystematic, (e)separation of data collection Uandn analysis, and (f) assumptions that qualitative research could produce only descriptive case studies rather than theory development”. In 1990, Strauss and Corbin introduced grounded theory which differs from the original method (see appendix A.1). Denzin and Lincoln (2000) introduced Grounded Theory as an institutional icon in the modernist paradigm. This finding may have been heavily influenced by the date of publication of the original monograph in 1967. That year lay well within Denzin and Lincoln‟s (2000) espoused second movement. It 63 may also have been informed by Glaser‟s strong positivist background, a view supported by Charmaz (2003). In contrast to the critics, Glaser (2005) maintains that the many critiques of the CGT method have done so by misunderstanding what GT is. There is a dominant paradigm called Symbolic Interactionism (SI) which is widely adopted by those who carry out Qualitative Data Analysis research. The QDA researchers who are also critics of the CGT method have incorrectly assumed that CGT is a sub set of QDA and therefore is based on Symbolic Interactionism. The mistake they have made is that just because CGT sometimes makes use of qualitativew danta that the CGT method must also be a QDA method. This perception is wTronog as explained in detail by Glaser (2005:4): pea “The Strauss origination of GT u siCng SI has a pretty heavy impact and dominance which given the abo voe dfiscussion, is hard to resist, but GT is just not an SI in possession… GitTy is just a relatively simple inductive model that can be used on any deatra stype and with any theoretical perspective. It is just a general inductive imvodel , or paradigm..no one theoretical perspective can possess it” Un Glaser (2005) tended to be ambivalent about the position of Grounded Theory and stated that Grounded Theory is intended as an alternative to all paradigms: “[Grounded Theory] is not an either/or method. It is simply an alternative to positivistic, social constructionist and interpretive qualitative data methods” (Glaser, 2001, p. 6). Glaser (2001) emphasizes that a method‟s selection is to be guided by the needs of the research, rather than by any one paradigmic bias: 64 “My bias is clear, but this does not mean I rubber stamp „ok‟ or indite any method. The difference in perspectives will just help any one researcher decide what method to use that suits his/her needs within the research context and its goals for research” (Glaser, 2001, p. 2). The CGT research method is not without its own shortcomings though, as has already been highlighted elsewhere in this thesis [chapter 7]. There are three main types of weaknesses of the CGT research method, open doors to critics and debate: 2.10.1. Methodological issues wn  The dense level of language used by Glaser in hTis ooriginal explanations of the CGT method as outlined in Glaser (1978).e p  The CGT method is highly expe a riCential and requires input from CGT mentors as well as texts. of  The CGT method is lasngiutayge based so this may be problematic when carrying transnationeal research projects. iv 2.10.2. ReseUarncher based issues i. The problem is that not all researchers are naturally skilled in being able to move from description to to conceptualization. Therefore the number of researchers that will be able to use CGT will always be limited. ii. The ability for the researcher to be comfortable in tolerating confusion. Again most researchers will not wish to gravitate towards a research method which has this inherent difficult embedded within its procedures. 65 iii. To be an effective CGT researcher requires more tenacity when using the CGT method than other more dominant paradigms. This is because the CGT researcher has to be able to address the academic prejudice shown by some gatekeepers who are either unwilling or able to embrace research paradigms other than those with which they are familiar. iv. Effective research which involves the use of the CGT method often requires high levels of access to people, which is sometimes pnroblematic. 2.10.3. Academic institutional issues Tow (i) Many academic institutions make the assumpteion that PhD thesis structures will be based on deductive based research maepthods. Since the CGT research method is a general inductive method fit dCoes not always make an easy fit into what many academic institutionys hoave previously decided is an appropriate research structure. rsi t (ii) Often those acadievmeics reviewing CGT based research often do not either understand its tUenents or criteria for their evaluation. This can sometimes restrict the publication prospects of some research which is based on the CGT method. (iii) Sections of the academic community incorrectly miscast the CGT method as being a sub set of the QDA research method which is dominated by symbolic interactionism. The CGT research method is a concept indicator model where all is data and is not constricted by either epistemological or ontological issues. Glaser (2005:3) states: 66 “GT is a general inductive method possessed by no discipline or theoretical perspective or data” Despite the many dimmed weaknesses of the CGT research method it remains a robust and useful method. The principle reason for this is because the latent patterns which it reveals are both real and transcendent of time, place and people. It is because of these benefits that most CGT researchers do find that the struggle will be well rewarded once a robust core variable is revealed. 2.11. Summary wn This chapter has detailed issues on the basic philosoTphoy underpinning CGTM, the stages and procedures of a CGTM study, supbsetan tive versus formal theory, ontology and epistemology, problems arising fraom giving the same label to very different methodological approaches, codinfg Cdata for an „emergent fit‟, the special characteristics of GT, how to createy a nod sustain transparency when using CGTM and the criteria for evaluating CsGTiMtr . The following chapter will outline and discuss the research design and avpperoach. Uni 67 Chapter 3 Research Design and Approach Based on Classic Grounded Theory Methodology 3.1. Introduction As detailed in chapter 2, this study used Classic Grounded Theory by Glaser & Strauss (1967) and Glaser (1978; 1992; 1996; 1998; 1999a; 1999b; 2001; 2003; 2005; 2006; 2008; 2009; 2011). As a result this chapter explains then research design and approach used by this study by following all tenets of Claosswic Grounded Theory. Section one will discuss the research population. Seec tioTn two will detail the data collection process. Section three discusses data aanaplysis. As discussed in chapter 2, the Classifc GCrounded Theory (CGT) is a general research method. It is not limitedt yto oany single ontological and epistemological stance (Glaser, 1978, 1998). rTshei use of Classic Grounded Theory methodology in this research revealed thve emain concerns of e-learning providers working in East Africa and how thosen cioncerns were continually being resolved in an ongoing process. U 3.2. Research Population The data in this Classic Grounded Theory study was drawn from e-learning providers working in East Africa. Following the Classic Grounded Theory Methodology (as detailed in chapter 2), the number, scope and range of those being interviewed were determined in an ongoing process based on the emergent data as shown in Appendix A.4, A.5, and A.6. 68 3.3. Data Collection A total of 24 e-learning providers respondents from Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda were interviewed on several occasions. This meant that the researcher had a total of 101 respondent encounters. All the respondents were e-learning providers working in East Africa with successful career track records, ranging from directors and e- learning stakeholders (consultants etc.) to e-learning lecturers and tutors. The meetings with respondents were scheduled after the researcher submitted a request for permission letter to the respective authorities to allow the reseanrcher to meet the e-learning providers within the organization. Permission to wmeet the staff was granted verbally from the authorities. The appointment t oT meoet the staff was made, scheduling date, time and location. This was accompplieshed either through a personal secretary or a phone call to the staff data collCectiaon department. Three types of data collection techniques were used: interviewf s, observation and secondary data as discussed in the next section below. o it y 3.3.1. Interviews / Meeetinrgss / Respondent Encounters Data was collectend tihvrough oral conversations, defined by Payne and Payne (2004) as “data coUllection in face-to-face settings”. The most important aspect of these interviews was that they were of short duration, conducted without tape recordings, and were followed immediately by detailed memo writing (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Glaser, 1978). The round of interviews was conducted with 24 people and each interview started from a respondent‟s perspective. Respondents were e- learning providers at various institutions in East Africa, including Higher Learning Institutions. 69 As per Glaser (1978), no notes or tape recordings were used in any of the respondent encounters. There were no semi-structured interview questions. Instead the researcher concentrated in the initial conversations on establishing rapport and making the respondents feel comfortable and unthreatened. These were deliberate strategies recommended by Glaser (1978). The rationale for this was that the respondent encounters should be more like normal conversations where both parties felt sufficiently relaxed to participate in a candid exchange of ideas. Immediately following each respondent encounter the researcher made very detailed notes that were later converted into theoretical memos. The Grounded Theoryn research method is known as a “delayed action phenomenon” (Glaser, 1978). oThwis is because it takes some time for both the researcher and the respondenet t oT consider what is and has been said. For this reason it is essential not to atatemppt to collect all the data first and then proceed to attempt to analyse it. It ifs eCssential in CGTM that the researcher follow wherever the data leads. This is boecause the GT researcher has to be able to move from the low level realm iotf ycontextual description to the higher level of theoretical explanation. ersv Once the researcnheri had completed at least six initial interviews with different respondents, appoUintments for subsequent interviews were made with respondents. Prior to the next round of respondent encounters more theoretical memos were written. The focus of the respondent encounters shifted and followed the issues emerging from the most recent iteration of theoretical memos. Although there is no standard template which all theoretical memos must adhere to, there are some basic issues which all theoretical memos must address. If these are not present there will be no transparency in terms of how the researcher progressed from raw data to an 70 emerged core variable. In order to meet transparency requirements all memos included the following: 1) Memo title 2) Summary of any substantive codes, categories and properties 3) Conceptual indicators [These are important links that form the bridge from substantive description to conceptual explanation] 4) Emergent theoretical codes, categories and properties wn 5) A statement as to the type of data the reseTarcoher believes has been given to him or her by the respondent [Bea seline, properlined vague, Zero, or interpreted data]. It actuallay dpoes not matter when doing CGT what type of data the researchfe rC has because everything is considered to be data. If, for exaymp loe, people are untruthful in encounters, this would probably bes miotre interesting and significant for the researcher than if they weerer being honest. What is of the utmost importance is that the rnesievarcher fully understands what type of data s/he has, rather than wUorry about accuracy. 6) A clear separation of empirical data from conjecture data. Both are important in CGT but they are very different types of data and need to be treated and used accordingly. 7) How has the data been fractured? Which conceptual theoretical perspectives has the researcher used to better understand the latent patterns embedded in the data? 71 8) What links have been highlighted in other memos from the researcher‟s bank of memos? 9) What unanswered questions arising from the data will the researcher use in his/her next meeting with the respondent? 10) Have the theoretical concepts in each memo been constantly compared and then sorted, and by what process? Once a critical mass of data had been generated this researcher had to use a combination of constant comparison and analytic induction tow tenase out the main issues of concern as expressed by the respondents. Tw oT coompeting main issues or core variables emerged. The researcher then follopweed the specific guidance given by Glaser (1978:93-100): to re-enter the field aand investigate which of the two variables proved to be more „robust‟. This fs itCuation occurred for them when Glaser and Strauss were writing the Discoyve roy of Grounded Theory (1967), where two variables emerged. As Glaser ansd iSttrauss (1967) did, the researcher had to re-enter the field to investigate whviceh orf the two core variable candidates was more robust. First the researcher rentuirned to the data and laboriously and constantly compared these across all thUe theoretical memos to see which of the two candidates for the core variable was more prominent. “Cultivating Recognition” began to emerge across all the data whilst the other core variable candidate only featured occasionally. The researcher re-entered the field and met with four respondents from the original cohort of respondents. A total of 101 respondent encounters were theoretically sampled for “Cultivating Recognition”. Cultivating Recognition was then instantly acknowledged by the respondents as their key issue or concern. Prior to this final wave of interviews the respondents had repeatedly been talking about their 72 concern with regard to the lack of respect on the part of some of their clients. Although it worried them considerably it turned out to be the symptom of something much more important and pervasive. It was a symptom of a general lack of recognition. Thus “Cultivating Recognition” emerged as the core variable. Figure 27 explains how “Cultivating Recognition” emerged as the core variable. As has been outlined above, each of the interviewees was re-interviewed several times until latent patterns of behaviour began to emerge. Once these patterns emerged the second stage of interviewing took place with more university professionals as well as other constituencies identified by the inwternviewees as being important people to speak with concerning this issue. ATs okey concept indicators emerged theoretical sampling was the feature of thpe esecond stage of interviewing. The interviewing and memo writing and sortinCg coantinued until no more new patterns emerged. When this happens the datao isf said to be „saturated‟: no more data is required because predictable pattertnys h ave begun to emerge. i The meetings with respeonrdsents were scheduled at least two weeks before meeting them to ensure iav respondent was free. Each meeting was introduced with an explanation. It wUasn made clear to the respondent that the research focus was to reveal, understand and explain what the main issues were which confronted these professionals in the execution of their role as e-learning providers in the implementation of on-line learning projects. Respondents were encouraged to let the researcher know if they felt uncomfortable about any line of enquiry. The absence of any tape recording or note taking during these encounters helped to make the respondents feel more relaxed. This made it possible to transform the nature of these encounters from an interview to something akin to a normal conversation 73 during which both interviewer and respondent were able to pose questions to each other. All encounters were kept deliberately brief so that the researcher was able to make detailed notes immediately after the conclusion of each meeting. The purpose of the series of meetings was to discover the respondents‟ main concerns regarding online learning including the challenges, how they solve problems and what they consider to be achievements and successes in the course of their daily working lives. It was considered vital to schedule several meetings with each respondent as this would give each respondent the time and space to reflect on subsequent encounters and enabled the researcher to encourage a respondent to think mnore deeply about what their real concerns were. w To Following this incremental process of havingp seeveral interviews with each respondent ensured that in each case the resCponadent‟s agenda emerged rather than that of the researcher. The choice of the lfo cations was an important consideration. The idea was to try and ensure thatt yth e orespondents felt relaxed. Thus a variety of locations, other than their ownr sofifices was selected. These included restaurants, university canteens, meetvinge rooms, public bars, walking in the street and driving in the car. Uni The meetings generated a huge amount of data through the notes from the 101 respondent encounters, each set of notes being recorded within 24 hours of each conversation. A summary of some of the different kinds of raw data collected in the course of this process follows: As part of the process of the grounded theory [GT] method the researcher has immediately to be aware of the types of data which emerge from conversations with 74 respondents. During the process, there were five types of possible data derived in any encounter with respondents: 1. Base line data – the respondent is being as truthful as possible, as far as the interviewer can gauge. 2. Interpreted data – the respondent is filtering his/her message either to deliberately complicate or simplify her/his responses 3. Properlined data – the respondent deliberately edits the data so that it is not in conflict with the “official” line of argument from his empwloyinng authority o 4. Vague data – the respondent deliberately gives a nT indistinct version of reality to try and confuse the researcher, obfuscpatee the issues and throw the researcher „off the scent‟ Ca f 5. Zero data – the respondent ryef uoses to say anything at all in order to avoid saying anything which he smiigtht later regret. r From a GT perspecitivvee it does not matter which type or types of data the respondent deliverUs bencause each type of data has the potential to communicate or contribute something of interest and value to the research. 3.3.2. Observation Higher Education professionals engaged in e-learning activities were observed during their daily activities. These observations were systematically documented in the course of writing theoretical memos. The researcher observed e-learning patterns first by using substantive coding and then by theoretical coding until the core variable emerged. 75 3.3.3. Secondary data sources A review was done of written existing documents in the higher education institutions such as those dealing with e-learning contexts and trends, performance ratings, program logs, tally sheets, and other existing indicators. This contributed to an analysis of the main concerns relating to e-learning by university professionals. Much of this data was sourced from the Ministry of Higher Education, universities and other governmental and non-governmental sources. 3.4. Data Analysis wn The Grounded Theory research method is a generaTl roesearch method which treats everything as data, whether quantitative oer qualitative (Glaser, 1992). Grounded Theory primarily uses an inductive arepsearch approach in which the researcher has to be subordinate to the dafta .C Grounded Theory is not a sub-set of Qualitative Data Analysis [QDA]. Thyis ios because QDA values accuracy above all within a narrow research contesxt iwthereas Grounded Theory is mainly concerned with the discovery of latent epartterns of human behaviour which are transcendent of the original context of nthei vdata (Glaser, 1978). The following GUrounded Theory Research process was followed as outlined by Glaser (1978, 1992): [1] Theoretical sampling and substantive coding [2] Theoretical coding [3] Theoretical memo writing [4] Constant comparison between and within memos 76 [5] Sorting codes [6] Data saturation [7] Emergence of the core variable Although the above is represented in a linear format, in practice the exact sequence varied according to what patterns seemed to be emerging from conversations with respondents. The reason for this is that GT is a process, not a unit based approach (Glaser, 1992). The data was simultaneously, subsequently, and sequentially collected, analysed and synthesized. Once mowst onf the variations in the data were explained in terms of a key concept, the da tTa woas said to be saturated and therefore there was no further need to collect mporee data since the core variable could be said to have emerged. The sequence oaf the research process, although as already mentioned, not a linear one, was as of foCllows: a. Gaining access and ciatryry ing out the first few interviews with e-learning providers. ers b. GT skill ndeivvelopment on the part of the researcher in memo writing, substUantive coding and theoretical coding using the data from the series of interviews with the initial group of interviewees. c. Managing the transition from substantive to theoretical coding, achieved by using a combination of the constant comparison method, cutting point analysis and grounding (as detailed in chapter 2). 77 d. The emergence of latent patterns following another series of interviews with e-learning providers. The data yielded was sorted so that conceptual indicators could help clarify these emergent latent patterns. e. Once the data could be said to be saturated the core variable emerged f. The core variable was then used as a basis for a comparative literature review. g. The findings are published in the form of this PhD thesis. n 3.5. How Principles of Theoretical Samplinogw have been used in this Study to Aid the Reseea Trcher’s Progressions ap Glaser (1978:36) defines the theoreticalf s aCmpling process in the following terms: o “Theoretical sampling is thei tpyro cess of data collection for generating theory where by the analyst jointlry scollects, codes and analyzes his data and decides what data to collect nievxt eand where to find them, in order to develop his theory as it emerges” ( p. U36)n Theoretical sampling is exclusively controlled and guided by the emergent theory as it arises. As an inductive approach, it is not constrained from the outset and is able to follow the data to the existing latent patterns embedded within it. In this study, the four most important principles involved in the use of theoretical sampling are as follows; it is a non-linear process, it is a combination of induction and deduction, the data is always in control of the direction of the research and the 78 essential relationship between the data and the theory is the conceptual code (Glaser, 1978). A non-linear process Throughout the research process, the researcher was always mindful that whenever insights arose the researcher would immediately have to write a theoretical memo about it. Frequently these insights would arise when the researcher was doing a quite unrelated tasks and at inconvenient times. Theoretical sampling enabled the researcher to examine right across all then data so that the emergent theory could be discovered. Tow A combination of inductive and deductive logpic e The CGT method is mainly an inductive a reCsearch method. Inductive logic comes into play because the theoretical samplinog fprocess is designed to reveal embedded latent patterns. It was not possibliet fyor the researcher to know in advance precisely what to sample and where it rmsight lead. This is why the use of induction was essential. This allowedi vthee researcher to discover the connections between the emergent substantUive ncodes. These latent patterns in which the substantive codes are configured are called theoretical codes. Once the theoretical codes started to emerge the researcher was able to use deduction to figure out where to go next in order to sample for more data to generate the theory. 79 The data is always in control As theoretical codes emerged the researcher kept on returning to the theoretical memos and any other data to see how prevalent they were. This also meant that once theoretical codes had emerged I went to respondents with a much more focussed approach. I was only sampling for the emergent theoretical codes. Those codes which were robust were found in all respondent encounters. Sometimes this meant returning to a respondent and asking them to give ever more detailed examples of issues which were of most concern to them in their wonrk. Obviously the researcher never coached the respondents for specific reswponses instead the encounters were always open and we would often discu ssT moany other things. Once the respondents became more relaxed they also bpeceame more candid about their work situation. At this point the researcher Chada to concentrate very hard because throughout this process notes were taokefn within 24 hours after the respondent encounters. ity The Essential Relatioensrhsip between the data and the theory is the conceptual code niv After following tUhe principles of theoretical sampling two distinct theoretical codes were persistently present. These were “asymmetrical collaboration” and “cultivating recognition”. At this point the researcher was very confused. To clear confusion the researcher was advised to re-read the section entitled core categories in Glaser (1978:94-100). Glaser (1978:94-100) explains in detail how and why this possibility will often occur. He also provides an 11 point explanation (see Table 4) as to how the researcher can discern which of the completing theoretical codes is the core variable. After re-reading this chapter I returned to my data and applied the 11 point 80 guide lines. In addition I also arranged more respondent encounters and only one of the two theoretical codes finally emerged as the core variable. It did so because it was able to explain most of the variation in the data. Table 4 : Selective criteria for Core Category (Source: Glaser (1978, p.93-100))  central  reoccur frequently  more time to saturate  connections not be-forced  clear & grabbing implication for formal ntheory  carry through w  completely variable o  is also a dimension of the proTblem  prevent to other sourcees of establishing a core  see the core categoray ipn all relations  it can be a kind oCf theoretical code f The Figure 3 below demonstratyes ohow the theory of “cultivating recognition” emerged from the data. t ers i Univ 81 Determine Population The E-learning Providers Working in East Africa from:  Researcher’s Networks  IT professionals Networks Emerging Issue Memoing Memoing Fractured n Data CONSTANT Data Coding w Coding Collection Collecotion COMPARISON & SORTING Note- Taking pe T Note- Taking Any YES pendinga YES issues Data Set n Data Set n +n Initial Interview C Subsequent Interview 6 respondents of 18 respondents NO itNyO s Saturated? NO  Return to data laboriously and  Return to data laboriously and constantly compare across all the r constantly compare across all the memos to prove which is more roebust YES memos to prove which is more robust and prominent than the other and prominent than the other  Re-enter the field to collecti dvata ( 4 Emerged Core  Re-enter the field to collect data ( 4 respondents for the original cohort) Un Variables respondents for the original cohort) Asymmetrical Collaboration YES Is more than YES one? Cultivating Recognition No End Figure 3 : How the Principle of Theoretical Sampling have been used in this Study to aid the Researcher’s Progression 82 Using Figure 3 above, this study began with determining the population through the researcher‟s networks and IT providers‟ networks. Following this, e-learning providers working in east Africa were chosen. As Glaser (1978) argues after determining the population, the theoretical sampling process will involve initial data collection and analysis. This study did an initial data collection using 6 respondents. After fracturing the data collected, detailed memos were written. In initial stages of analysis, codes were elicited rapidly through a joint process of theoretical sampling and memo-writing. Through this process, codes were corrected, trimmed, and continually fitted to the data (Glaser, 1978). The memo writning enabled the researcher to conceptualise the boundaries and propertieso owf each category and illuminated gaps in the emerging theory, thus highlighteing Twhere to sample next and for what theoretical purpose (Glaser, 1978). Thae pmemo writing included all basic issues detailed in section 3.3.1 (see samplef mCemos in Appendix A.7 and A.8). The constant comparison of ctoyde so yielded a provisional set of conceptual categories, from which point nrews ciategories emerged and new incidents were fitted and re-fitted into existingv ceategories. The researcher sampled for both theoretical similarity and differennce iin order to expound the properties of each category, and attempted to saturaUte all categories until the emergence of a core category (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). Once latent patterns were discovered, the researcher had to return to the data and see how wide spread across all the data the emerging phenomena actually was. At this point there were no more categories emerging- it was saturated. As soon the categories were saturated, the study realized that two competing core variable candidates did emerge. As has been explained earlier in 3.5 after applying the 11 criteria (see Table 4) which distinguished between competing core theories, the core variable emerged. 83 3.6. Summary This chapter has detailed issues on research design and approach. It has covered research population, Data collection methods and process, and Data Analysis. The chapter has taken care of Classic Grounded Theory Methodology principles and procedures in its research design and approach (as explained in chapter 2). The following chapter will provide a contextual Literature Review. ow n T ap e C ty of rsi niv e U 84 wn e T o p f C a y o rsi t niv e U 85 Chapter 4 Contextual Literature in E-learning 4.1. Introduction This chapter details the contextual literature in e-learning. The discussion follows the argument map in Figure 3 below. wn To pe f C a o ty ers i nivU Figure 4: The Argument Structure of Contextual Literature Review in E-learning 86 As indicated in Figure 4 above, the chapter will begin with an examination and review of the e-learning background, looking at various definitions of e-learning, its history and its possibilities. Secondly, the chapter will identify and discuss the drivers of change in the e-learning field. Thirdly, this chapter will examine the management, implementation and evaluation of e-learning. The fourth section presents a discussion of the issues facing e-learning and provides a framework perspective. The fifth section describes and explains e-learning strategies and applications. The sixth section of the chapter looks at how e-learning is perceived and understood in the East African context, looking at the status of e-learning inn the region, its advantages, limitations and degree of effective implementaotiown. The final section looks at previous research in this area in order to situaete thTis study in the body of the contextual literature reviewed and discussed. apC 4.2. E-learning Backgroundo: Df efinitions and History 4.2.1. A broad view of e-learintying and its definitions s There exists a variety ofe er-learning definitions and terms. While Moore (1998) sees e-learning as invnolviivng the use of the computers or electronic devices in some way to provide trainUing education or learning materials, Wentling et al. (2000:5) offer a broader, more detailed definition which includes a projection of the future scope of e-learning: “E-learning is the acquisition and use of knowledge distributed and facilitated primarily by electronic means. This form of learning currently depends on networks and computers but will likely evolve into systems consisting of a variety of channels (e.g. Wireless, satellite), and technologies 87 (e.g. Cellular phones, PDAs) as they are developed and adopted. E-learning can take the form of courses as well as modules and smaller learning objects. E-learning may incorporate synchronous or asynchronous access and may be distributed geographically with varied limits of time.” The Wentling et al. (2000) definition focuses mainly on defining the technology on which e-learning is based. It included elements of learner engagement, engaging e- learning experience constructs and pace of rapid technology changes. Telematica Instituut (2001:4) defines it thus: n “E-learning is the use of internet technology for theo crweation, management, making available, security, selection and use oef e dTucational content to store information about those who learn and toa mponitor those who learn, and to make communication and cooperatio nC possible. The purpose is to support, expand, and increase the adap toabiflity of the transfer and advancement of knowledge and skills.” sit y This definition details seeverv ral functions of e-learning and the potential it has to fulfil both now and inn ithe future. One assumes that education institutions and organizations wouUld choose to use a particular e-learning service based on their particular educational needs and the functions they want it to provide. They would therefore check whether the applications fit the current and future information infrastructure of their organization or institution and the particular needs of their „customers‟ (students). Ndume, et al. (2008:3) highlight the flexibility of e-learning in terms of geographical location, time and individual needs. They see e-learning as: 88 “…learning done at a computer usually connected to a network, giving one the opportunity to learn anytime, anywhere, allowing knowledge to be brought to the learners, wherever they may happen to be, allowing the pace and content of education to be tailored to the individual needs.” According to this definition e-learning not only allows learners to learn when ever or where ever they want or need to but makes it possible for them to tailor their learning to their individual needs. These definitions share the core characteristics of e-learningn as a technology offering education and training in electronic form using elecotrownic devices, where a candidate may not necessarily be in class but needs teo b eT connected to the Internet and browse through the courses in the electraonpic form known as Web Based Training (WBT) or the use of Computer Ba sCed Training (CBT). Charles Clarke‟s (2003:7) report to the Department for oEdfucation and Skills (DfES) of the United Kingdom argues for the transformaittivye potential of e-learning, particularly in terms of being accessible to all: ve rs “E-learning hnasi the power to transform the way we learn, and to bring high quality, acceUssible learning to everyone – so that every learner can achieve his or her full potential.” (Clarke 2003:7). As detailed in Figure 4 below from Clarke (2003), e-learning could be seen to measure up to the goals and ideals he advocates for a 21st century education system. These goals and ideals include learners empowered, creativity and innovation, flexible provision, better value for learners and a professional workforce (see Figure 5). E-learning claims it has the potential to fulfil these criteria. 89 wn e T o ap Figure 5: A 21st Century Edoucfa tCion System Goals and Ideals (So iutryce: Clarke (2003:2) The Commission on Tecehnrolsogy and Adult Learning in UK (2001:9 -10) seems to define e-learning withnin iva more restricted and rigid framework: “. E-learning as instructional conteUnt or learning experiences is delivered or enabled by electronic technology, (CTAL, 2001). . The delivery of e-learning depends on availability of technology infrastructures. E-learning can only be achieved through the use of technology. Hall (2001:4) defined e-learning as “the process of learning via computers over the internet and intranets”. The components of infrastructure such as computers, internet and others, could be drivers of the delivery of e-learning. Many authors define e-learning within a wide range. Anolina (2005) and Albert & Mori 90 (2001) argue that there are many e-learning definitions. Table 5 below summaries a wide range of e-learning definitions. Table 5 : E-learning Definitions with Citations E-LEARNING DEFINITION SOURCE(S) an open and distributed learning environment that uses Dabbagh & Dannan- pedagogical tools, enabled by the internet and web- Ritland(2000:15) based technologies to facilitate learning and knowledge building through meaningful action and interaction n w To an innovative approach for delivering well-defined Khan(2005:3) learner-centred interactive and facilitated leaarpning environment-to anyone, anyplace, any tCime by utilising the attributes and resources of va roioufs digital technologies along with other fyorms of learning materials suited for openr,s fleix tible and distributed learning environment ive n instruction thUat is delivered electronically, in part or Hall (2001:18) wholly – via a Web browser, through the Internet or an intranet, or through multimedia platforms such as CD- ROM or DVD any program that uses information and Bates (2005:32). communicational technology to enhance the learning process. It is a particular use of internet and the web in teaching and learning process 91 refers to the use of ICTs to enhance and support Sife, et al. (2007:3) teaching and learning processes. It is the instructional content or learning experiences delivered or enabled by electronic technologies and it incorporates a wide variety of learning strategies and technologies referred to the intentional use of networked information Naidu (2006:7-12) and communications technology in teaching and learning wn to learn with the help of electronics. However e-learTninog Edland (2011:46) most commonly refers to learning online via a weeb based learning platform. This means that if yopu have a computer and Internet access, you can takae e -learning courses at your home, office, and anfy wChere else that has an Internet connection andy a coomputer it The delivery of a learneinrgs, training or education Stockley(2003:4; program by electrovnic means. E-learning involves the 2006:11) use of a compunteri or electronic device (e.g. a mobile phone) in soUme way to provide training, education or learning material the use of Internet technologies to deliver a broad array Rosenberg(2001:28) of solutions that enhance knowledge and performance Web-based training (WBT), also known as e-learning Rossett & Sheldon and on-line learning, is training that resides in a server (2001:23) or host computer that is connected to the World Wide Web 92 a broad combination of processes, content, and Adrich (2004:15) infrastructure to use computers and networks to scale and/or improve one or more significant parts of a learning value chain, including management and delivery just-in-time education integrated with high velocity value Drucker (2000:7) chains According to Table 5 above, some of the definitions are fairly general and similar in their focus on the quality of accessibility of e-learning, while wsomne are focused on the technologies used in e-learning. Inclusion of co-eTvoolution, the social and emergent nature of e-learning, in many of the definitioens is indicative of the fact that people and technology drive e-learning. Gooadepar (2001) suggests a way of facilitating the success of e-learning. All fd eCfinitions of e-learning seem to be in agreement that e-learning, through thye uose of technology, offers just-in-time delivery (Khan, 2005) and its provision insvoilvtes the search for cost-effective ways to meet the learning needs of a globallye dirstributed population (Urdan and Weggen 2000). For the purposes of thisn situvdy, the researcher created the following e-learning definition: U E-learning is the use of modern networks, electronic devices, channels (wireless, satellite, etc.), internet and web technologies in teaching and learning processes, offering the opportunity to learn or teach anywhere, anytime and to include any content. It includes the design, creation, delivery, storage, management and evaluation of educational content, as well as the development of learners and trainers. 93 The definition above captures the up-to-date definition of technologies used, and the purpose of e-learning providers' theory. It has been gleaned from other definitions, collecting and incorporating all the elements and purposes of e-learning into one definition. The definition is an expanded one with an understanding of current and future technologies such as mobile learning, and others. As a result this definition will be used throughout and will inform this thesis. wn e T o ap of C rsi ty niv e U 94 Table 6: Labels Used to Describe the Same Concept of E-Learning Label Meaning Source(s) Online Learning Encompasses a range of Bloom (1968:4), Khan (OL) technologies such as the world-wide- (2005), Malopinsky et web, email, chat, newsgroups, and al. (2000), Schank text, audio and video conferencing (2001), Albert & Mori delivered over computer networks (2001) (local area networks, intranets or the n public Internet) which deliver Tow education and training, both eto remote locations and ain p the classroom. of C Computer Based An interactive iitnystructional approach Bates (2001), Yieke Learning (CBL) in which trhse computer, taking the (2005), Anolina (2005), placei voef an instructor, provides a Albert & Mori (2001), Usenries of challenges to the student Block (1971), Bloom ranging from questions to be (1968). answered to choices or decisions to be made. Web Based Learning materials delivered in a web Khan (2005), Yieke Learning (WBL) browser, including materials packed (2005), Driscoll (2002), on a CD-ROM or other media. Albert & Mori (2001) 95 Rosenberg (2000). Web Based Teaching and learning supported by Khan (2005), Khan Instructions the attributes and resources of the (2001), Albert & Mori (WBI) Internet. (2001) Khan (1997), Relan & Gillami (1997). Web Based Courses delivered on the intranet, Khana (2005), Yieke Training (WBT) extranet or internet and that are (2005), Driscoll (2002), linked to learning resources outside Roswenbnerg the core course, such as references, T(2o000),Schank (2001), electronic mail, and discussionp aend Horton (2000), Collis video conferencing. Ca (1996). Internet Based Any process in w hoichf a learner is Anolina (2005), Khana Learning (IBL) provided witsh iatcycess to courseware (2005), Yieke (2005), stored oen trhe campus or the Internet, Driscoll (2002), fronm ievither location. Laurillard (1995). U Online The use and application of available COL (2002), Khan Resources assets to support varied learning (2005), Barbara (2002, Based Learning needs across contexts via online. 2004), Cramer, et al. (ORBL) (2000) Technology Any training through media other than Dam (2004), Goodear. based Learning the classroom, including computers, (2001), Pergler & 96 (TDL) television, audio, tape and others Littlejohn (2007). Distance A way of providing learning COL (2002), Khan Learning opportunities that is characterised by (2005), Dabbagh & the separation of teacher and learner Bannan-Ritland (2005), in time or place, or in both time and Yieke (2005), Barabara place; learning that is certified in (2002, 2004), Cramer, et some way by an institution or agency; al (2000) the use of a variety of media, n including print and electronic; two- w way communications that allow e T o learners and tutors to interacpt; the possibility of occasional Cfacea-to-face meetings; and a sp eocifalized division of labour in itthye production and delivery ofr scourses. The variety of labelsiv eused for Distance Learning, Uincnlude Distance Education, Distributed Learning, and Remote Education Mobile Learning, Any educational provision where the Dam (2004), Goodear. sole or dominant technologies are (2001), M-learning handheld or palmtop devices. Mobile Pergler & Littlejohn learning could include mobile phones, 97 smartphones, personal digital (2007) assistants (PDAs) and their Khana (2005), Yieke peripherals, perhaps tablet PCs and (2005), Driscoll (2002), laptop PCs, but not desktops in carts Schank (2001). and other similar technologies. Computer The use of educational software to iNACOL (2011), Assisted enhance the mastering of educational Dabbagh & Bannan- Instruction (CAI) concepts or standards without the Ritland n(2005), Yieke involvement of a teacher. (2o00w5), Barbara (2002, T2004), Cramer, et al pe (2000) a C of Unusually rapid change in the dietvyelopment of technologies drives the burgeoning of e-learning terms and labels.r Tshe e-learning labels, and what is included under the labels as outlined in Tiavbele 6 above, will be used to construct a subset of relationships betweUen nthe labels (Anolina, 2005). Understanding this relationship will provide a more complete picture of e-learning labels, their links and divergences. Figure 6 below demonstrates these e-learning label relationships and interrelationships in schematic form. 98 n Tow e ap of C ty ers i iv Un Figure 6 : The Subset of Relationships Between the various E- learning Labels (Modified version of Anolina (2005)) According to Figure 6 above, there are four categories of labels and keywords which include: Online Resources-Based learning, Technology-Based Learning, Distance Learning and E-learning categories. At no time can the definition of one 99 category be identical to a definition which crosses the line or the boundary of another category. Several definitions offered by different authors of a term from one category should relate to other categories, which contain similar terms and keywords (Anolina, 2005). An e-learning category can include more labels and terms than any other category, ranging from computer-based learning, Internet-based learning, web- based learning, and online based learning, to mobile based-learning. 4.2.2. A brief E-learning History n Aranda (2007) traces e-learning history back to whoen wthe computer was developed. The concept and practice of distance learn iTng predates the computer era by almost 100 years. The range of distance pleaerning delivery media over the media is vast. Distance learning can range Cfroma a text delivered by postal mail to various kinds of material in the form of vfid eo tapes, radio and TV programs. E- learning was first conceived of as any a ido for the classroom instructor. As soon as personal computers came inr tshei tearly 1990‟s, the idea of online classes was explored, albeit with somive eresistance from the education traditionalists at the time (Aranda 2007). The tranditional teaching culture of E-learning providers, together with a lack of infrastrucUture, combined to create resistance to the use of technology in teaching and learning (Ndume, et al. 2008). According to Aranda (2007) improvements in e-learning technology and the possibility of creating virtual classrooms and learning environments (VLEs) has gradually broken down resistance. The power and presence of information technologies has resulted in a transformation of these technologies from potentially strategic resources into commodity factors of production in the teaching and learning environment (Carr 2003). Mersham and Viviers (2007) have noted that a plethora of new jargon and 100 terminological confusion around the delivery of e-learning to students has developed. These terms include „open‟ and „flexible‟ learning, „computer-aided‟ and online learning and „contact‟ or „centred‟ learning. The problem is that these terms have often been used interchangeably and the differences in meaning, content and intent are sometimes blurred or unresolved (Khan, 2005; Ndume, et al. 2008; Aranda 2007). In spite of the jargon and terminology confusion around it, e-learning is still on the agenda for many enterprises and governments and constitutes an important technology category for emerging economies. The adoption of we-lenarning at a faster pace than any other more traditional learning delivery me thTodos (Ndume, et al., 2008) has meant that e-learning can be applied in any copunetry as the need for education and training is universal. E-learning has aClreaady begun to transform education systems worldwide. E-learning provideros afr e becoming available anywhere and at any time. While East Africa in they 2 1st century has joined the information and communication technology revrolsutiiotn, it faces the challenges of institutionalising the development of Informatiovne and Communication Technology (Ndume, et al. 2008) and allocating its bennefitis to schools and universities (Flinn & Lawrence 2003). As this history has shoUwn, the growth of the e-learning „industry‟ in the last decade has been rapid and its transformative influence on education dramatic. This raises the question: what have been and are “the drivers of change?". 4.2.3. Drivers of Change The history of using technology for learning is replete with promises and disappointments (Rosenberg, 2001), indicating the need for identifying and understanding the drivers of the e-learning revolution. The use of various media 101 technologies including film, radio, television, video tapes and others, has the potential to replace textbooks and classroom teaching as a form of learning. However, while, as Salomon (2001) points out, although there may be differences between a media technology revolution and an e-learning revolution, Castells (1996) argues that e-learning should be part of any technology revolution. At the same time as the technology revolution has transformed the social landscape (McAdam, 2003; Meredith & Newton, 2003), Information Technology has transformed, and is transforming, the global economy. The transformation is rapid due to the rapid rate of change of these technologies. E-learning is part of this rapid trnansformation. As Figure 7 below, shows there are many factors driving the e-leoarnwing revolution. pe T a of C rsi ty niv e U Figure 7: Drivers of the e-learning revolution (Source: Meredith & Newton, 2003) E-learning is both a result of the rapid technological change and a response to the changes taking place in culture and society. E-learning has the potential to facilitate a shift from discrete units of teaching and learning to continuous learning 102 (Salomon, 2001). In summary, as Figure 7 shows, various reasons for the emergence and rapid growth of e-learning are provided by the literature review. Reasons given for this process by some of the researchers in the field include economic, educational, and population growth factors: “The rapidly changing economy as a main driver for e-learning increase” (Johnston, 1987:6). “…The failure of traditional education delivery is crucial to the expansion of e-learning” (Ndume et al. 2008:2-3) wn “… The existence of an eligible population Tforo education forces the education sector to move towards students u psieng computers for self-directed study” (Pergler & Littlejohn 2007:21-23) Ca 4.3. Implementing, Managi nogf and Evaluating e-learning It has been found that manys eiffto yrts made to implement e-learning fail at a very early stage. The process of eimprlementing e-learning is not a simple one and requires comprehensive knowlendgiev of the context related to the implementation of e-learning. It is essential that Uany approach to implementing e-learning takes into account the context in which e-learning is to take place. As Ndume, et al. (2008) noted, in order to successfully implement e-learning the country should take into account:  The context: an analysis of cultural, political, demographic, technological and social issues must be done, as well as of the main concerns of professionals in the field, 103  Specific learning technologies and software: learning management systems (LMS) should be selected on the basis of whether they fit the needs of a particular community (e.g. rural and urban, education community, business community, etc) and whether it is possible to opt for readymade software or open source software. In the case of developing countries the best option would be the kind of open source software which fits the particular consumer, client or participants or receivers of e-learning (e.g. Moodle19, etc.).  Efforts must be invested in analysing the LMS to ben used and to be developed and expanded into the future. The advantwages of a systematic approach to e-learning are as set out in Table 7 Tbeloow. pea of C ity ive rs Un 19 Moodle is an abbreviation of Modular Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment; is a free and open source e-learning software platform (available at www.moodle.org) 104 Table 7 : Advantages of a Systematic Approach to E-learning and its Implementation (Source: E-learning India, 2006) Allows individuals other than the instructors, such as learners or students wishing to take up the course, to view and weigh up the content. Guarantees the examination of vital theories through opposite presentation and pertinent20 learning Makes objective assessment of the quality of e-learning possible Makes the e-learning process more transparent, thereby adding quality Significantly helps students participating in online programs by means of quality content presentation and interactive sessions wn Renders distance learning more effective due to its interactive nature ando its transparency in comparison to conventional distance learning programs T Provides students with the liberty to opt for the instructionapl fraemework of their choice instead of the instructional framework governing student‟s choice oaf course in classroom learning. Builds a comfortable link between pedagogy andf te cChnology Facilitates a process of to creative blending oof the material offered by different instructors and different courseware sit y r ive 4.4. Issues FUacning E-learning: e-Learning Framework Perspectives According to Singh (2003) a variety of issues need to be addressed in order to create a meaningful and sustainable e-learning environment. Khan (2005) has outlined eight issues in his octagonal framework: institutional, pedagogical, technological, interface design, evaluation, management, resource support, and ethical issues (see Figure 8). 20 Pertinent refers to having clear decisive relevance to the matter in hand (Merriam-Webster Dictionary) 105 wn Figure 8 : A Framework for E-l eTarnoing (Source: Khan 200p1ae) a Each dimension in the framework represfe nCts a category of issues that need to be addressed for successful implementa toion of e-learning. These issues help to organize and conceptualise the thiintkying around the planning of implementation and to ensure that the resulting elearrsning program results in an effective and meaningful learning experience. niv Khan (2007b, U2001b, 2005a) categorises the pedagogical dimension of e- learning in terms of teaching and learning. This dimension addresses issues concerning analysis of the content of an e-learning program, audience analysis, goal analysis, media analysis, design approach, organization and methods and strategies in the context of e-learning environments. An e-learning provider needs to understand the pedagogical dimensions to creating effective and meaningful learning experiences for users. 106 The technological dimension of the e-learning framework involves examining issues of technology infrastructure in e-learning environments. This includes infrastructure planning as well as choice of hardware and software (Khan 2001b). According to Khan (2001a) the interface design refers to the overall look and feel of e-learning programs. The Interface design dimension encompasses page and site design, content design, navigation, and usability testing. While the evaluation of e- learning includes both assessment of learners and the evaluation of the instruction and learning environment, the management of e-learning refers ton the maintenance of the learning environment and the distribution of information (Kwhan 2001b). o Khan (2001a) sees the function of the resource su pTport dimension of the e- learning framework as being to monitor and makep preovision for the online support and resources required to foster meaning fuCl leaarning environments. The ethical considerations of e-learning relate to s oociafl and political influence, cultural diversity, bias, social class, income levels, giteoygraphical diversity, learner diversity in terms of age and social class, informartison accessibility, etiquette, and legal issues. The institutional dimension isi vcoencerned with those issues of administration, academic matters and studenUt senrvices related to e-learning (Khan 2001a). Understanding the factors and issues involved in the eight dimensions of the e- learning framework can provide guidance in the design, development, delivery and evaluation of flexible, open and distance learning environments, in addition to helping those involved in the process to face the challenges, both new and old, which e-learning has to confront. Saint‟s (2001:3) outline of these old and new challenges facing e-learning is summarised in Table 8: 107 Old e-learning Challenges New e-learning Challenges Expanding access Knowledge-based economic growth Stabilising and increasing Information/communication revolution financing. Global labour market Preserving and boosting quality. Competition from abroad Maintaining relevance Competition from private providers Promoting equity HIV/AIDS Strengthening management Political conflict and instability Renovating facilities Table 8 : Old and New Challenges confrontingw e-nlearning The eight issues or challenges outlined by Khan (20T07)o need to be taken into consideration in the process of implementing e-learneing , particularly in developing countries. In the context of East Africa, for examaplep, HIV/AIDS has been one of the newer challenges to the implementation off eC-learning. The numbers of e-learning experts who succumb to the diseasey or owho leave the education sector diminish the hopes of implementing e-learninsg ietffectively (Ndume, et al 2008). As Khan (2005a) pointed out, the role people eplary in e-learning, and in the process of creating quality e-learning materials, envailuvating them and making them suitable for and available to a specified audienUce is crucial. Figure 9 shows the role played by people in the process: 108 n ow pe T a of C rsi ty niv e U Figure 9 : The People-Process-Product (P3) E-learning Continuum Model (Source: Khan (2005a) Figure 9 above shows that the quality and success of the entire e-learning process depends on the number and quality of the people who participate in and 109 manage it. It is the people involved who are responsible for providing various e- learning and blended learning products within the process. People involved in e- learning can be referred to as the E-Learning Team responsible for producing e- learning materials. The e-learning process can be divided into two main phases: (1) content development, and (2) content delivery and maintenance (See Figure 10 below). n Tow e ap of C y Figure 10 : Thsei tIterative Process of E-learning r ve (Source: Khan (2005a) i A typical e-leUarning process includes the planning, design, development, evaluation, delivery, and maintenance stages. Khan (2001a, 2005a) sees the nature of the e-learning process as iterative (Khan 2001a, 2005b). Although evaluation as shown in Figure 10 is a separate stage of the e-learning process, ongoing formative evaluation for improvement (i.e. revision) should always be embedded within each stage of the e-learning process (Khan 2007b). Thus individuals involved in various stages of the e-learning process should be in contact with each other on a regular basis and collaborate in revising materials whenever this is required. Depending on 110 the size and scope of the project, the number of individuals involved in the various stages of an e-learning project may vary (Khan 2005a). Some roles and responsibilities may overlap, as many e-learning tasks are interrelated and interdependent. A large e-learning project requires the involvement of various individuals. This puts people at the centre of the success of any e-learning project, hence the importance of finding out the main concerns of professionals. Each individual participating in the implementation of an e-learning programme has certain responsibilities and a role to play. Such roles can be directly or indirectly related to specific stages of the e-learning process. For example, an instrucntional designer is generally involved during the content development process, wohewreas services from a technical support person are needed mainly during thee co nTtent delivery stage. p 4.5. E-learning Strategies and ICCTa applications In order to make maximum use of th eo vafrious members of the e-learning delivery chain a wide variety of learning isttyrategies and ICT applications for exchanging information and gaining knoewlredsge have to be used (WB, 2007). ICT applications include television, radio,i vCompact Discs (CDs) and Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs), video conferencingU, mnobile technologies, web-based technologies, and electronic learning platforms. These are detailed and defined in Table 9 below. 111 Table 9 : E-learning Strategies and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Applications for Exchanging Information and Gaining Knowledge (Source: Sife, et all, 2007) ICT application Explanation and definition Television(TV) A receiver displaying visual images of stationary or moving objects both live or pre- recorded, accompanied by sounnd electronically captured. ow Compact Discs(CDs) and Digital Laser technology for wTriting and reading data; Versatile Discs (DVDs) large amounts opf meu ltimedia training materials can be storeda and made available to users using the sCe technologies. f Video Conferencing Tyw oo or more participants at different locations itcan see and hear each other in real time; an rs interactive video communication over high- ive speed internet connection. It provides an n opportunity for data sharing (e.g. Skype) U Mobile Learning The use of portable computers for learning, such as personal digital assistants, handheld computers, cell phones or combinations of such devices 112 Worldwide Web The standard that allows for distribution of information stored on a server and connected to the Internet E-learning platforms Learning management systems, used for delivery of learning content and facilitation of learning process, offers electronic access to course materials Every e-learning technology has its pedagogical, technical and cost implications as detailed in Table 10 below: wn Table 10 : Pedagogical, Technical and CostT Imoplications for E- learning Technologies, (Source: Sifee et al. (2007: 2) p e-learning Pedagogical TechnCicaal implications Cost implications technologies implications f TV/Radio Effective use of Voarious kinds of Costly in terms of TV/radio dependist oyn equipment are needed TV/radio three key mormsents depending on the production which in the apvpelication: objectives and the scope includes: animatio befonre,i during and of the training application n and graphic aUfter the viewing these include designers, session and on audiocassette, video hardware, access giving instructions, camera, PCs, editing to the broadcast explanations, software, distribution network. questions or channels and receiving evaluation before and displaying and after each equipment. moment. 113 CD/DVD Simulation for self- Hardware that meets Costs are higher study used with the learners‟ specifications - than for printed presence or remote graphic screens, MPEG2 materials; - support of the cards, CD or DVD reader replication, trainer. and appropriate software. downloading free products or buying ready-made products can lower costs. Web-based Permanent Fast computers with Hardware, technologies accessibility (24 sound cards and reliable technical expertise hours, all days of the Internet connection are annd Internet week); speedy, direct required. The followinog waffordable communication; links team is needede fo rT subscription costs to related topics and implementing web-based to most people. up-to-date notes. training: (aa) pAn instfru cCtional designer faomiliar with computer sit y delivered instruction, (b) A programmer or author er competent in the use of iv the authoring tool, (c) A n graphic artist, (d) A U subject matter expert, (e) A webmaster for maintaining the programme on the server. 114 Video Requires new Equipment required: (i) There are two conferencing pedagogical Sound proofing and types of costs: methods to provoke controlling of the lighting setting up the interaction; also conditions, (ii) Audio- video conferencing requires small visual peripherals – TV system and groups. monitor or video affordable Both trainers and projector, camera(s), operational costs. learners require microphone(s) and sound some basic training. playback, (iii) Video conferencing codec (iv) Multimedia PC (with PCI- based as well as software n based video conferenocinwg codec) and (v) Mo rTe bandwidth is needed for higher-qualitpy images. Ca E-learning Adding and changing (io) Rfe quires server Hardware cost platforms content as a course platform hardware ,(ii) implications; progresses. sit y Requires client platform Cost of Template eforr hardware ,(iii) Operating maintenance; inclusioivn of course system/cross platform, Operational costs contnent. (iv) organization/ (technical and SUupport multimedia registration/ administrative presentation of administration, and (v) support-low costs) course content The learning content License fee Complex structuring should be in standard (annual fee). of content allowing formats that can easily be for multiple links and stored, accessed and cross-reference distributed. Such formats possibilities. include HTML, PDF, RTF, GIF, JPEG and MPEG. 115 E-learning providers use a combination of the technologies. The suitability of each technology depends on the choice of the e-learning provider and the target learners. For example, if the target learners are in rural areas where the Internet is less accessible, then the use of DVD/CDROM is more successful. Most HEIs campuses use a combination of the technologies, and this has been found to be effective (Ndume, et al. 2008). Uys (2005) and Meyen et al. (2002) emphasise the ability of e-learning to facilitate both learner engagement and to nprovide engaging experiences for the learner. Omwenga et al. (2004) demonwstrate how it helps overcome the traditional barriers to education delivery. Th eTseo barriers include lack of physical infrastructure, lack of qualified teaching pstaeff, the absence of adequate education budgets, and the failure of traditional paedagogy and curricula. East African countries are characterised by these barriefr s C(Ndume et al., 2008; Omwenga et al., 2004). The failure of government etfyfor tos to build an adequate number of physical classrooms suggests that the ornsly iarea of innovative education available is that of e- learning (Yieke, 2005). ive The literature iUndicnates that developed countries have been participating in e- learning for many years while some developing countries, including those in East Africa, are still in the initial stages of e-learning implementation. Most of the e- learning projects in these countries face challenges largely due to poor perceptions on the part of e-learning providers of e-learning as a means of teaching and learning effectively (Ndume et al., 2008; Khan 2005; Omwenga, 2004; Allen, 2003, and Ajzen 1998). Some factors, such as inappropriate use of technology, pedagogy and curricula, lack of resources, lack of knowledgeable staff, lack of management 116 support, and poor infrastructure have exacerbated the delay in e-learning implementation. Issues related to institutional management, technology, pedagogy, ethical issues, interface design, resources and design are cited by Khan (2005a) as issues which need to be addressed at all stages of the e-learning implementation, operation and evaluation processes. 4.6. Understanding E-learning in East Africa There are various e-learning implementation initiatives in East Africa involving many different stakeholders, including universities and non unniversities (other education institutions such as colleges and schools). Univerositiwes in East Africa are investing heavily in e-learning as a means of enhaenc inTg teaching, learning and research, and in an attempt to find a solution tao psome of the problems in higher education in the region and to tap the benefi tsC of e-learning Some of these initiatives are beginning to close the digital gap (N doumfe et al., 2008). y 4.6.1. Contribution of E-lresarinting to the East Africa Economy That education is thei vcoerner stone of development in East Africa countries is a given. It has beenU shnown to have significant positive effects on economic growth, earnings and productivity (WB, 2001). Education enables people to acquire new knowledge in the areas of the production and selling and in developing related activities which stimulate socio-economic growth. E-learning can have a beneficial impact on teachers, teacher organizations and on learners. Despite the many e- learning challenges, Flinn & Lawrence (2002) have predicted positive implications of e-learning for the future of the East African economy. 117 Through e-learning teachers can afford to develop their skills, are able to work flexibility, collaborate with local and international counter-parts to develop their subject area knowledge, and to reduce the volume of administration. Organizations deploying e-learning are able to minimize the requirements of physical space in the form of infrastructure and classrooms, to reduce the costs of course delivery, widen learner and teacher participation, and accommodate people from all walks of life including disabled people, workers and the unemployed (Ndume et al., 2008). Learners can access e-learning material and study “anywhere, any time and any place”. For example adult learners can study while working. Ewasnt Africa has been investing huge amounts of money in building classrooms. Iof e-learning is adopted money will be saved simply by teachers and learneres m Taking use of the available ICT infrastructure. However, as this study is ianvepstigating, successful e-learning implementation requires an understandinfg Cof the main concerns of university professionals involved in the implement aotion and delivery of e-learning. y E-learning can increase arccsesist to and improve the quality of education in a relatively cost-effective wavy e(Flinn & Lawrence 2003). The number of young people eligible to attend highneri education places is high throughout the EA region. E- learning is a poteUntial innovative strategy to meet these challenges. E-learning offers convenience and portability, cost and selection, budget and design and learning flexibility, collaboration, global opportunities and higher retention rates of students within the e-learning education systems in comparison with the traditional schooling systems. E-learning can improve the quality of instruction and create flexibility in the design and delivery of curriculum content. Understanding the main concerns of the e-learning university professionals could be one of the ways forward in promoting successful and sustainable e-learning implementation in East Africa. 118 4.6.2. The market for E-learning & the Drivers of Change While e-learning is not a new phenomenon in the developed world, it may be new to some developing countries. Its market is rapidly increasing globally. According to Merrill Lynch (2003:3-4), the size of the online market in the US alone stood at $7 billion in 2003, e-learning being the fastest growing sector in the US education and training market at $40.2 billions in 2005. The USA is followed by Europe and the rest of the developed world. Developing countries are making extensive use of distance learning. For example, the Open University of Tanzania has 25,000 students. Africa has made progress in establishing an African virtual universitwy. Mnany countries in Africa are striving to establish e-learning in universities. TDooughty et al. (2001) and Saint (1999) have documented the rise of the virtualp uneiversity in Africa. There are many e- learning initiatives in Cproagress in Africa, such as Schoolnet (Ndume, et al., 2008) and others. Simiolarfly there are some initiatives in Tanzania, such as the e-learning centre at thiet yOp en University of Tanzania (Sife et al., 2007), the African Virtual Universitrys and others. In spite of these initiatives the implementation of e-learinvineg has remained problematic in Tanzania, because, in developing an appUroanch to implementing e-learning, planners have not taken into consideration one which fits the context (cultural, technological and demographic). The increase in the demand for higher education is one of the driving forces for implementing e-learning. The rate of student enrolment in higher education globally is expected to increase from 48 million enrolments to 159 million in 2025. With an annual growth rate of 3.5% at present, the projected annual growth rate for Africa is 5.8%, and for Tanzania 4.6%. This is above that of many other countries in Africa. Higher population growth, lower education costs, increased access to education, and 119 higher participation rates in higher education changes the way firms organize work and cost-effectiveness and are factors driving the implementing of e-learning in Tanzania (Ndume et al., 2008). 4.6.3. E-learning at HEIs in East Africa Dr. Gajaraj Dhanarajan (2001:9), President of the Commonwealth of Learning, argued that: “One would be foolish to question the importance of the internet and www for education in this neww dnecade; at worst it has the ability to connect communitieTs oof learners and teachers and at its best it could very well bee the tool that education has been waiting for these past athopusands of years; its promise is only limited by the imafg inCation and capacity of the people who can apply and beyne foit from it”. t This kind of vision of a futrurse ielectronically driven and inclusive education has been a driving force for HivEIes in East Africa and has provided the spur to implement e-learning. As is thUe cnase with other African countries, the rate of implementation of e-learning platforms in East Africa is still very slow despite the potential opportunities provided by open source technology and the conducive environments created by the respective governments. There have been some initiatives on the part of governments to develop ICT policies as a way forward in the implementation of e- learning. In addition there have been different round table conferences and recently the formation of the EAC Common Trade has fostered a debate on a common education delivery. For example, Tanzania has abolished all taxes related to 120 computers and related equipment and reduced licence fees and royalties payable by the telecommunication operators (Morrison & Khan, 2003 and McPherson & Nunes, 2008). The more established public universities, including the University of Dar es Salaam, Nairobi University, Kampala University, Makerere University, Kigali University and others, have managed to implement e-learning platforms in East Africa. They are implementing these using either open source or customised platforms such as WEBCT, Blackboard, Moodle, Joomla, etc. Other universities in the region have started the basic process of ICT infrastructure wexpnansion to include local area network implementation, Internet, computer la bTs aond other facilities, as a way forward to the establishment of e-learning (Sife,p ete al., 2007). In spite of the fact that most of these uCnivaersities are public universities and receive yearly funding from the budgets oof tfheir respective countries, other e-learning obstacles remain. Some of them airet yfaced with software licensing problems (Sife, et al. 2007). This issue is dealet writsh through the use of open source software such as Moodle, KEWL and otheirsv. Many conferences are organized with the deployment of open source softwaUre nwith the purpose of enhancing the process of implementing e- learning. An increasing number of e-learning programmes are being used in different universities in East Africa. While some are pilot projects, others call for new ventures to cater for the growing population. In all these ventures there is a need to learn and discover the main concerns of e-learning providers involved, as a way of improving e-learning practices. 121 4.6.4. General Advantages of E-learning Khan (1997, 2001a, 2001b, 2004, 2005a, 2005b, 2007a, 2007b) argues that e- learning offers a wide range of advantages for learners and educationists. Firstly, it offers flexible learning and training, enabling the learner to fit his/her learning into her/his daily schedule. Secondly, e-learning increases education access, and finally it offers better quality education and at a lower cost. In Table 11, adapted from the World Bank Report (2001:15) on e-learning, shows how the advantages of e-learning are viewed differently by the diffnerent members or constituencies in the e-learning delivery chain. w To GROUP E-LEARNING ADVANpTAeGES  a Enhances skillsf d eCvelopment Teachers  Flexible to m oeet limited time available  Can reiutsye collaboratively prepared course material  Rerdusces the amount of administration ive Un  Minimizes the need for physical spaces (infrastructure, Establishments or classrooms, etc.) Organizations  Reduces the cost of delivering courses  Affords wider participation in courses on a global scale  Suits all ages, thus increasing numbers 122  Can study anywhere as long as there is access to a Learners or computer with internet connection Students  Flexibility to join discussions any hour of the day  Can work at own pace  Can accommodate different learning styles through different activities Table 11 : Advantages of Implementing E-learning Learning in education Institutions from different perspectives (Source: WB, 2001) n Sife et al. (2005) show the various ways in which e-leaornwing can improve the quality of instruction and learning. It creates greater f leTxibility in the design and delivery of curriculum content, makes it possible to apdaept the program to suit specific student needs or work requirements, uses C staandardised materials developed by subject experts, and provides lecturers oanfd teachers with increased access to the latest information, syllabi and teiatcyhin g aids. Finally e-learning is cost-effective (Mihhailova, 2006). ers 4.6.5. E-learning Bneinvefits in the East Africa Context For Africa, e-leUarning offers a number of potential benefits as a means of increasing access to and improving the quality of education in Africa including Tanzania. It addresses the access to and quality of education delivery in a relatively cost-effective way (Flinn and Lawrence 2003:3). Table 12 below summarises and identifies additional benefits from e-learning: 123 Table 12 : Identified Benefits of E-learning in East Africa Context BENEFIT DESCRIPTION Convenience and portability Accessible 24/7 Does not require physical attendance Self-paced (not too slow, not too fast) Unbound by time and place Opportunity to study anywhere (at home, at workplace, etc.) Cost and Selection Choose from a wide range of ncourses to meet your needs Optimum level of certificoatwion at your fingertips T Budget and Flexibility Accommodatep yoeur preferences and needs Student-cenatred Choose Cinstruction-led or self-study course Jumopf a nd take what you want tyS uit your particular learning style Greater Collaboration rsi Facilitate collaboration with a large community e Facilitate discussion Global Opportunity niv Global learning opportunities are at your U fingertips Higher Retention Draws one to a topic you enjoy Activates memories and relates to industry E-learning offers the best way to increase access to higher education through delivering education to learners with limited financial resources who need to study in their own time while they remain at work. It effectively reaches those learners who 124 are often denied access to education, such as women, young people who fail to gain direct access, and economically disadvantaged or isolated communities. 4.6.6. E-learning Limitations and Challenges in HEIs in East Africa Despite scattered e-learning projects in East Africa, challenges and limitations remain in the process of undertaking e-learning implementation. Such challenges and limitations are categorized in terms of campuses with technological infrastructure compared with traditional campuses, design, personal and other limitations. Such limitations and challenges include: wn  Conflict with the curriculum: Changing from aT toraditional face to face curriculum to an online, learner-centred cu prriceulum has generated conflict. This changeover has caused some lectuarers to resist the change to new technology. E-learning, to be sucfc esCsfully implemented, needs a match between curriculum and availyab leo technology, and vice-versa (Omwenga et al., 2004) and for all edruscaititon actors to come to the party in order to avoid the „not inventedv heere‟ syndrome. The alignment of curriculum with technology, andn viice-versa, includes the use of multimedia, reorganization of content andU the inclusion of certain courses. Sometimes the need to modify technology to suit the curriculum includes changing the Internet bandwidth. This has been one of the challenges facing HEIs in East Africa. This study will help to reveal the main concerns of those professionals who are the key stake holders in curriculum development.  Lack of technical experts and support: Like most African regions, East Africa has to face the reality of a lack of technical expertise to support e- 125 learning implementation. While Omwenga et al. (2004) argue that limited resources means that the region has neither the local capacity to develop the necessary human resources in this field, nor the means to attract highly skilled and expensive experts from abroad, Sife, et al. (2001) claim that there are very few e-learning technical experts in East Africa to implement e- learning projects. Local experts are not generally trusted or sufficiently competent to install, operate, maintain, administer and secure the network. Most e-learning projects fail due to lack of planning, especially concerning the issue of technical support (Sife et al. 2007). Both learners annd instructors face critical challenges in the use of e-learning due to this laockw of technical support. Often they need to learn how to troubleshoot epr oTblems themselves, in turn increasing resistance to e-learning on thea paprt of lecturers. Thus appropriate plans and strategies need be put in pfl acCe to solve this problem.  o Existing infrastructure: Thitey ex isting infrastructure in developing countries, including East Africa, irs spoor (Omwenga et al. 2004). In rural areas the development of tevchenological infrastructure is critical. Internet access is concentrated inn uriban areas and in a few higher learning institutions. There are frequenUt electric power cuts and Internet connection is unreliable. Omwenga et al. (2004) describe the slowing down of technology-supported instructional methods used in different universities in East Africa.  Financial Resources: Financial resources are key to the successful implementation of e-learning in East Africa (Sife et al., 2007). Opportunities to reap the benefits offered by e-learning are limited by lack of financial resources. While there are initiatives to search for open source software, the 126 start up cost is such that HEIs tend not to adopt e-learning practices. Omwenga et al. (2004) point out that the price of hardware and software, although constantly decreasing, remains too high for the budgets of many educational institutions in most developing countries, East Africa being no exception. Most HEIs are under-equipped in terms of the necessary facilities such as servers, computers, CD-ROMs and the appropriate software. In addition the cost for maintaining e-learning, including upgrading and maintenance, hinders the process of reaping the benefits from e-learning. n  Content Development: Poor content development in we-learning has been due to a lack of technical experts and professiona lsT ino the region. This dearth has hindered the development of quality copntent, resulting in most online learners dropping their studies and chaCnginag their attitudes to and perceptions of e-learning (Omwenga et al. 20o04f) ]. Lack of e-learning content remains a cause for concern in the regiiotny. Additional challenges incelurdes lack of ownership, issues of security and quality assurance, cultural infnlueivnces, professional and competent staff development, lack of awareness andU negative attitudes towards e-learning, transformation of higher education, lack of administrative and management support and of a systematic approach to implementation (Sife et al., 2007; Omwenga et al., 2004; Ndume et al., 2008; Allen, 2007; MacFadzean & Newton, 2005; Bates, 2001; Manville, 2004). The various limitations and challenges outlined in this section are summarised in Table 13 below in order to provide a comprehensive picture of e-learning limitations and challenges in East Africa. 127 Table 13 : Summary of E-learning Limitations and Challenges in East Africa. Category Issue(s) Source(s) Lack of hardware such Kathawala, Abdou & Elmutti (2003), as computers Hiltz (1997), Sife, et al., 2007), Technological Ndume, et al. (2008), Materi & Fahly (2004), Kearsley (1996), Broadbent (2003), Rumblew (20n00). o Lack or low level of Ndumee e tT al. (2008), Uys (2003). Internet penetration and ap access in rural areas C of Limited tyI nternet Chadha & Kumail (2002), Collins bandwidthr si (2000), Lee & Al-hawamdeh (2001), ive Sife et al., (2007), Ndume et al. Un (2008). Lack of finances or Sife et al. (2007), Ndume et al. limited budgets (2008), Khan (2001a, 2002, 2005b). Lack of preparation and Kember et al. (2001), Ndume, et al. orientation and training (2008). Human for newcomers 128 resources or Lack of ICT skills Carr (1999), Angelina (2002a, Manpower 2002b), Hamid (2002), Ndume et al. (2008). Lack of initiative and Kearsley (1996), Rivera & Rice self-discipline, lack of (2002), Schott et al. (2003), Yum, self-motivation Kember and Siaw (2001). Poor writing skills Smith & Rupp (200n4). w Lack of face-to-face Schott e t aTl. o(2003) physical interactions, e Limitation p feeling of isolation a compared to of C traditional Lack of facilities such as McCraken (2004); Vernon (2002); those ons itt yraditional Bourne, Harris & Mayadas (2005). campuses campuesers, internships, vnoluinvteer opportunities, Uaccess to physical libraries or book stores, career development counseling. Difficulty teaching Angelina (2002a, 2002b); Strauss compared to being in (2003); Kearsley (2000); Wang physical classroom due (2003); Calvert (2001); Levy 129 to lack of familiarity with (2003);, Pachnowski (2003); Rogers technology. (2000); Ndume et al. (2008). Poor and/or unfriendly Ivergard & Hunt (2005); Howel, design courseware. Williams & Lindsay (2003). Design Limitation Difficulties involved in Sife, et al. (2007) ; Ndume et al. designing courseware (2008). Other Time consuming Kathawala, Adbwou n& Elmutti (2002), o Lack of e-learning staff Schifteer (2T004); Dringus (2003). Promotion Schemes ap Lack of Academf icC Angelina (2002b) ; Lau (2002) ; honesty, ty " odigital Patalong (2003) ; Schott et al. cheating"r si (2003). e niv ULack of certification and Kathawal, Abdou & Elmutti (2003);, recognition of online Kearsley (2000); Baker (2003). courses Difference in time zones Rourker & Anderson (2002). 130 4.7. Previous Research: Situating the Study within the Existing E-learning Literature: Critical evaluation In order to understand the e-learning implementation process, it is necessary to evaluate the work of the leading authors in the e-learning field using a contingency table. This will help to give an overview of the range of discussions within the e- learning field and other associated fields. Table 14, the contingency table, includes types of authors across the vertical axis, the key main concepts shown below the table, and the types of methodologies on the horizontal axis, denmonstrating how existing work in e-learning has been carried out. Tow ap e of C y ers it Univ 131 Research Methodologies used INDUCTION DEDUCTION DEDUCTION INDUCTION NO THEN THEN METHOD INDUCTION DEDUCTION SPECIFIED Scott (2007)10, 11 ACADEMIC Dreyfus (1999)25 Brusilovsky Omwenga, et al. Njenga & Fourie ( 2008) 1-24 T Y P E 16, 17, 22 Jones(2002) 14, 17 (2003) 13 (2004) 10 -15 Lujara, et al. ( 2007) 3, 5 O F A U T H O Hsbollah & Idris Suddaby & Aroyo & Dichewva nLevy (2003)1-4 R (2009) 16 Milne (2008) 3, 18, (2004) 11, 20 Gunga & Ricketts (2007) 20, 22 Puteh (2008) 2, 3, 22 22 16 O‟R egTan (o2003) Juhary (2005) 3 Mitchell & eLujara (2008 ) 5, 21 Viviers & Honore (2009) Abouchedid & Eid Mersham(2007) 12,13 1 2, 18 p (2004) 18, 19 Ndume et al. Ettinger eat al. Macpherson et al. (2008)13,16 (200 Alexander (2001) 3, fBe dC6a) 10, 11 16 (2005)1-11 narek,- Barron (2006) 10, 11 6, 17 oMichalska & Ennew Mihhailova y(2006) 10 Wolodko 2007) &Pernandez-young 11 16 18 20 i22t 17 19 (2006) 1-24 Etrtinsger et al. Kavulya (2007) Muyinda (2007) 2, 3 e(2006b) 10, 11, 20 20, 22 23 v Netteland et al. Hinson (2006) 17, (2007) 1-9, 19 21 ni Li (2009) 10-11 U Luambano & Nawe (2004) 10, 11, 16 JOURNALIST 132 GOVERNME MoST (2003) 1- MoST (2006) 2, 3 24 NT IUCEA (2001)24 REPORT MoST (2002) InfoDev (2005) 1-24 1-24 3, 10, 11 GURU Zhang et al. (2004) Khan( 2005) 1-24 Key to Attribution of Main Concepts to Authors: 1 Technological Drivers of E-Learning Development 2 Institutional Drivers of E-Learning Development 3 Pedagogical Issues 0f E-Learning Development 4 Ethical Issues of E-Learning Development n 5 Resources Issues of E-Learning Development 6 Interface Design Issues of E-Learning Developmentw 7 Social-Cultural Barriers Slowing Down Deve lopmoent E-Learning 8 Infrastructure Barriers Slowing Down DeveelopTment E-Learning 9 Economical Barriers Slowing Down Development E-Learning 10 Learner Engagement 11 Engaging E-Learning Experiences p 12 Blended Learning a 13 Adaptive Learning C 14 E-Learning Technologies f 15 Educational Drivers oyf E -Loearning Development 16 Perceptions And Actceptance of E-Learning 17 Models For E-Learning Development 18 Collaborative Nrestwiorks of public-private partnerships for e-learning 19 Benefits/adveantages of e-learning 20 Challengievs of e-learning 21 Content barriers slowing down development of E-learning 22 ICT pnolicies/strategies related to e-learning 23 TeUch ical Expertise barriers slowing down development of E-learning 24 Quality Assurance and Evaluation issues of e-learning 25 Dangers of education on the internet Table 14 : Contingency Structure Table Showing Type of Author and Methodologies Used Table 14 above shows that most leading research has used deductive research methodologies. Scott (2007) was unique in his use of an inductive research methodology, specifically Classic Grounded Theory. Scott‟s (2007) grounded theory thesis was focused on adult learners who were the recipients of e-learning. The 133 study revealed the basic social psychological process of temporal integration21 as being the method by which the main concern is continually processed. The research revealed how adult learners were able to integrate e-learning into part of their everyday lives by means of temporal integration. The three stages of this iterative process are juggling, engaging and evaluating. Scott (2007) suggests new ways of designing research for supporting determination: and offers connected learners and tutors strategies for managing the temporal integration process. The main weakness of having a large body of research based knowledge, which is confined to the use of deductive research methodologies, isw thant there may be a lack of new insights and new theories of e-learning. One Tof tohe main motivations for this thesis is to redress that imbalance and discoverp thee main concerns of e-learning providers working in East Africa. C a Apart from Scott (2007), all previou so refsearch in this field has been carried out according to the agendas of the reisteyarch community. It is quite possible that many of the main concerns and beesrt spractices of the practitioners themselves may have been overlooked. Whilei Svcott (2007) used CGT, looking on the side of receivers of e-learning, this stuUdyn used the Classic GT research method, focused from the delivery perspective (the e-learning provider) and in the context of tertiary education (Universities), whereas Scott (2007) was mainly concerned with those on the receiving end of e-learning (the e-learners themselves) and adult learners specifically (Lifelong Learning learners). 21 Temporal Integration refers to the process (main concern) of online learners through which the problem of fitting study into a learner‟s life is achieved, more or less successful. 134 Use of the CGT method not only reveals important and deep seated issues but it does so in a transcendent manner. In other words, the core variable revealed by the CGT method, as detailed and explained in chapter 5, has the potential to be of relevance across a wide range of different e-learning contexts and is not limited to the context from which the data originated. The possibility exists that the lack of knowledge concerning e-learning implementation could be as a result of the lack of theory informing the e-learning implementation process. The researcher hopes in this study to develop a theory which will inform e-learning implementation practices in a mwore nconstructive and thorough way than has been the case so far. It is hoped thTat othe theory developed in the course of the study will also augment the literpatuere on e-learning dealing with theory. C a 4.8. Summary ofy This chapter has examineds aintd reviewed contextual literature concerning e- learning prior to the use vof eClrassic Grounded Theory. A wide range of e-learning definitions has been enxaimined and discussed in order to develop a description of e- learning which isU comprehensive and up-to-date. Issues arising from critical evaluation of leading authors in the e-learning field have been identified, and information systems and e-learning in the specific context of East African have been identified and discussed. The following chapter will develop a theory of Cultivating Recognition. 135 Chapter 5 The Emergence of the Theory of “Cultivating Recognition” 5.1. Introduction This chapter describes and explains the process of the emergence of the theory of “Cultivating Recognition”. The chapter has two main objectives. The first is to reveal the scope and complexity of the empirically generated Cnlassic Grounded Theory of “Cultivating Recognition”. The second objective ios two explain how, using the Classic Grounded Theory research methodologey, Tthe theory of “Cultivating Recognition”, emerged from the raw data collectedp and memo-writing in the course of the study as detailed in Appendix A.7 and a ACppendix A.8. The chapter has thirteen sections. While the first section is an inotrofduction, the second section explains the process in which cultivating recoigtnyition emerged as a core variable. The third section discusses the main ecornscepts of the theory of “cultivating recognition”. The fourth section details thei vtwo primary sub core variables of “cultivating recognition”. The fifth section fuUrthenr explains the six secondary sub core categories revealed by and in the course of this research. Section six provides an explanation of the five secondary sub core categories revealed by and in the course of this research. Section seven outlines the process of the transition from the raw data to the emerged theoretical concepts. The eighth section presents an overview of the “Cultivating Recognition” model, together with its primary and secondary sub core variables. Section nine provides a commentary on the emergent theoretical codes. Finally, more discussion on the lower level concepts involved in triggering the 136 cultivation of recognition are discussed in section ten to twelve. Chapter concludes with summary in section thirteen. All the sections are based on finding from data (Glaser, 1978) as detailed in Appendix A.7 and A.8. 5.2. Process in Which "Cultivating Recognition" Emerged as Core Variable The concepts emerged from theoretical memos (see Appendix A.7) which were written after a series of respondent encounters. The process was a much more subtle one than simply counting the number of times responndent X made Y comments. This is because at the heart of the theoretical moemwo several things are going on at the same time. As Glaser (1978:134) argues : e T "The credibility of the theory should bae wpon by its integration, relevance and workability not by illustrationsf aCs if were proof. The theory is an integrated set of hypotheses nyot fiondings. Proof is not the point." t The stages in the " i Cultivrasting Recognition" theory emergence process are represented in Figure 11i bveleow. Un 137 Respondents give narrative (at descriptive level) Documented as Substantive codes Researcher dialogue with Data and do memo writing Sorting and n constant No Is it saturated? w (What things need to Yes comparison be aske d, to get o more details (if T any)?) 1. Repveaels low level descriptive data 2. aConstant comparisons across C all the different memos Yes Core Variable Conflicting? y o f No sit Theoreticale Cordes Emerge nivU Modeled, interrelated, multivariate Hypothesis in accounting for resolving the main concern Figure 11 : The Process in Which "Cultivating Recognition" Emerged as Core Variable 138 The emergence of "Cultivating Recognition" as a core variable (Main concern) of e-learning providers took place through the following process: 1) The respondent presented his/her own narrative at the descriptive level in terms of what s/he thought was going on regarding problems experienced in the delivery of e-learning. For example "I feel unrecognized for my skill and abilities by those commissioning IT work". This account could be seen as narrative, and did not immediately reveal the respondent's main concern. Instead, at this point, the respondent was expressing his frustration without articulating how to resolve this frustration. The research wprocness in due course revealed that his frustration could be overco e mTeo by "Cultivating Recognition" p 2) Within the depth of each theoretical m eCmoa (See Appendix A.7) the researcher had also to dialogue w oithf the data in order to establish what kinds of questions he needed to piotsye in subsequent respondent encounters. There came a point when eachr osf the respondents kept revealing the same conceptual codes.i v Ate the point when these conceptual codes evolved into an interrelated Umulntivariate model the moment of data saturation occurred. When data saturation happened there was no further requirement on the part of the researcher to collect more data since the „latent pattern‟ had emerged. 3) The theoretical memo first revealed to the researcher the low level descriptive data: "I feel unrecognized". By means of constant comparison across all the different memos certain theoretical codes started to emerge. Theoretical codes implicitly conceptualize how the substantive codes related to each other as a modelled, interrelated, multivariate hypothesis in accounting for 139 resolving the main concern. The main concern in this thesis was not being recognized as such. It was resolved by "Cultivating Recognition" Another example from respondents involved in the whole process outlined in Figure 11 above is the frustration of “being disrespected" by management and other stake holders. "Being disrespected" was a low level description because it was not able [by itself] to explain why the frustration arose or how it could be resolved. Following more respondent encounters and more theoretical memos, several theoretical codes were revealed. These theoretical codes weren subjected to the process of constant comparison until a latent pattern was diswcovered. This latent pattern [so called because although it was always there Tit woas not possible to see without the intervention of the GT process embeddpede in the theoretical memo-ing] revealed the core variable of "Cultivating RCecoagnition". "Cultivating Recognition" was the core variable because it accountedf f or most of the variation in the data and it was also the mechanism which wyas ochosen repeatedly by the respondents to resolve their main concern, thart sof i"bteing disrespected". The only legitimate bivaseis on which a GT of "Cultivating Recognition" used in research could be Uevanluated is whether it is a robust interrelated hypothesis and one which does account for how the respondents continually attempt to resolve their main concern. 140 5.3. Main Concepts of the Theory of "Cultivating Recognition" The study discovered “Cultivating Recognition” to be an emergent core variable, amongst e-learning providers who participated in this research, who were based in East Africa and had continually to resolve the issue of “Cultivating Recognition” in order that e-learning projects could be successfully implemented. The concept of “Cultivating Recognition" emerged as the core variable because it was able to explain most of the variations in the data. The core variable of “Cultivating Recognition" is defined by the researcher as follows: wn o The recurrent creation and recreation of gain iTng acknowledgement of achievement in order to both commission andp imeplement e-learning initiatives. a This definition of “Cultivating Recognfit ioCn" explains in conceptual terms the perpetual process in which e-learninyg poroviders have to engage in order to secure the necessary financial support sfori their e-learning projects to be commissioned and implemented. ive r The process byU whnich the concept of “Cultivating Recognition" emerged as a core variable is explained in Table 15 below. 141 1. The study resulted in twenty four respondents 2. The two concepts, “Cultivating Recognition" and "Asymmetric Collaborating" emerged continuously during the process of writing up the theoretical memos. 3. The researcher, using the constant comparison method, in the course of 101 respondent encounters, and after going back for more interviews, found that the concept of “Cultivating Recognition” was repeatedly emerging as a main concern across all the theoretical memos and thus the concept of “asymmetric collaborating” was discovered to be a less important concept in terms of the constant comparison method because it was subsequently found to be one of the ways in which the concept of "Legitimizing" cnould be operationalised. In other words “asymmetric collaborationw” is a sub set of one of the sub core variables and not the main concern Tof tohe respondents, see Figure 18. 4. The concepts of "Legitimizing" and "Credentiaplizeing" later emerged as the two main enabling mechanisms which facilitatead “Cultivating Recognition”, or „allowed‟ it to happen. f C ty o Table 15: The Procresssi by which the Concept of "Cultivating Recovgneition" Emerged a Core Variable i “Cultivating Recognnition" was found to emerge in a variety of different contexts and business relaUtionships in which e-learning providers were working, including providers22-to-government, government-to-providers, community-to-providers, providers-to-community, providers-to-funding bodies, funding bodies-to-providers, manager-to-employees, employee-to-manager, peer-to-peer, and providers-to- partners, partners-to-providers. The two sub core variables [ “Legitimizing” and “Credentializing”] of “Cultivating Recognition” are discussed in Section 5.4 below. 22 ‟Providers‟ here refers to people engaged/participating in e-learning provision- e.g. universities, consultant bodies, e-learning companies, university professionals, etc 142 5.4. The Two (2) Primary Sub Core Variables of “Cultivating Recognition” This section of the chapter details the ways in which e-learning providers “Cultivate Recognition”. It shows how they do so by being “Legitimized” and “Credentializing”, see Figure 12 below. n C ultivating Recognition Tow pe Ca Legitimizing Credentializing of I s saturated? rsi ty Figure 12: Thive eSub Core Primary Variables of "Cultivating Un Recognition" Both these concepts, "Legitimizing" and "Credentializing", are sub core variables. If either of these variables is absent then the process of “cultivation of recognition” cannot take place. Both concepts emanate from the external endorsement by key professionals. As Figure 12 above demonstrates, "Legitimizing" and "Credentializing" are the two primary sub core variables of "Cultivating Recognition". They constitute a theoretical code that connects them. This indicates the two primary sub core 143 variables to constitute the process necessary to the emergence of "Cultivating Recognition". The two primary sub core variables and their associated secondary core variables processes are briefly detailed below. "Legitimizing" is defined in this context by e-learning providers as the process of ensuring the project is delivered, valid and sustainable. This is achieved by the accumulation of social credit bestowed on the e-learning providers by their peers and clients. "Legitimizing" is the process of ensuring the e-learning activitiens (e.g. designing, delivery, evaluation) are delivered, and such deliverables areo vwalid and sustainable. The validity and sustainability of the project is ensured aTnd maintained due to the "Legitimizing" process, which is an ongoing anda peprpeetual process. Thus for their projects to be continuously sought after, E C-learning providers need to ensure a project is legitimized by a client or fun doerf and is accorded respect throughout the process. The main symptom of aintdy reason for a lack of legitimization is the lack of respect shown to e-learning prrosviders by some clients and funders. A "Legitimizing" process is undertaken byi ve-leearning providers as they need to gain respect from their clients. The procesUs onf "Legitimizing” involves three main activities or processes: "Collaborating", "Referral Networking" and "Strategic Alliancing" (see Figure 13). At the start of this legitimizing process e-learning providers collaborate with other experienced e-learning partners prior to a formal funding submission for their e- learning projects. This collaboration can be either with partners who have a considerable degree of influence and power (asymmetric collaboration) or with partners with a similar or equal level of power and influence (reciprocal collaboration). Secondly, they make full use of their existing referral networks so that 144 the potential client or funder is more likely to have confidence in the proposal. Finally, e-learning providers are more successful if they have already entered into formal strategic alliances with other respected partners and these inform, and are integrated into, the proposal document. Successful e-learning providers are able gain more traction in their projects when they are able to simultaneously synchronise several different projects. This is because of the potential for sustainability from one project to another that synchronicity could deliver. The details of each sub secondary core variable of "Legitimizing" (see Figure 13) are outlined in brief below: n Legitimizing w (P roject Based) o pe T a Collaborating C Strategic Referrafl Alliancing Ne toworking y Figure 13: Susb-ictore Variables of “Legitimizing" r ive As shown in UFignure 14 below, "Collaborating” is built by “asymmetrical Collaborating” and “Reciprocal Collaborating” as its sub-core variables. “Collaborating” is defined by a researcher as” “the process of creating business opportunities through the advantages of partnerships” 145 Collaborating Reciprocal Asymmetrical Collaborating Collaborating Figure 14: Sub Core Variable of “Collaborating” wn "Collaborating" partners are of two types: (1) thoTse owho are "Asymmetrically Collaborating" and (2) those p"Reec iprocally Collaborating". "Asymmetrical collaborating" is a concept wahich explains how the weaker party in the collaboration is able to obft aCin the benefits that collaboration brings (e.g. funding opportunities, schyol aorships) whilst skilfully avoiding being dominated by the more poswietrful partner. r "Reciprocal Collaboraivtineg" is the process of generating mutual benefit for the parties by sharing Upowner and status. The power comes from funding opportunities and decision making. The collaborating parties in reciprocal collaboration tend to share power equally regarding the implementation of the e-learning project. The benefits from the e-learning project are shared equally between the "Reciprocal Collaborating" partners. "Referral Networking" is a process of stimulating existing, and creating new, contacts. These connections and networks can be useful for endorsing e-learning projects, thereby increasing their legitimacy. "Referral Networking" can be of value to 146 the e-learning providers in terms of capturing more opportunities for funding, collaboration, and for increasing the popularity of the online programs. "Strategic Alliancing" is defined as the mutually beneficial process of working together for the purpose of delivery of online courses or securing funding. "Strategic Alliancing" is a medium to long term process of connecting with other parties in a particular field. This includes matching the strategic objectives of one institution to the other. "Credentializing" refers to the creation of increased client belief in the e-learning providers' competence to execute a project on time and within budget, and according to the required specifications. This is achieved by the endorsemwent nboth by members of the e-learning providers‟ peers and by their client. “C rTedoentializing” involves the creation of increased client belief in the e-learning pproevider‟s competence to execute an e-learning project on time and within budgaet”. Figure 15 shows the three elements or criteria necessary for the "Crefd eCntializing" process to ensure the belief of the client in the e-learning providetrys' coompetence. rsi ve Credentializing i (Peer Based) Un Prioritizing Endorsementizing Duties Res ult Orienting Figure 15 : Sub Core Variables of "Credentializing" 147 According to the above process the outcomes are: firstly, all claims and statements of accomplishments and achievements made by the e-learning providers are only seriously considered when endorsed by respected external third parties; secondly, the e-learning providers are able to both understand and execute project priorities by the skilful accomplishment of the process of prioritizing. Finally, the e- learning providers are able to develop a results-orientated mindset by cultivating the skills involved in result-orienting. These three key processes (shown in Figure 15 above) are elaborated below: "Endorsementizing" is defined as a process whereby thew e-nlearning provider presents his professional work experience and academi cT quoalifications to the client in a format which the client can easily comprehendp, aend which are perceived by the client to be relevant. Such a process makes thea e-learning professional tailor each curriculum vitae presented specifically tof mCeet the needs of a particular client. "Result Orienting" can be defined atsy t h oe process of ensuring concrete results and achievements ensue from thres pilanned e-learning project so that clients can recognise such efforts. "Rveesult Orienting" is achieved by means of the process of "Visualizing", "Professnionializing" , "Role Delineating” [ensuring the role of each e- learning provider Uis clear and understood], and "Focalizing", or being obsessive about details and the use of professionalism and competence so that unforeseen crises such as conflict gaps can be dealt with effectively (see Figure16 below) 148 Result Orienting Visualizing Role Delineating Professionalizing Fo calizing wn Figure 16: Sub-core Variables of “ResTulto Orienting" The processes shown in Figure 16 above will bep disecu ssed in the next sections of this chapter Ca "Prioritizing duties" (Figure 16) is doefifn ed as the process of ensuring that all tasks are sequenced in order ofi tiymportance to ensure the project‟s successful completion (i.e. the process herlpss to increase competence and recognition). e In the next sectionn 5.i5v of this chapter the sub core variables and the associated secondary sub corUe variables of legitimizing and Credentializing will be explained in more detail. In this study all variables emerged using the grounded theory process. The raw data was transformed first into substantive codes and then into theoretical codes. 149 5.5. The Six Secondary Sub Core Variables of "Cultivating Recognition" The two primary sub core variables of "Cultivating Recognition" are “Legitimizing" and "Credentializing" each emerged and were found to contain three sub core variables (See Figure 17 below). Cultivating Recognition wn Legitimizing T oCredentializing (Project Based) e (Peer Based) Cap Strate gic f Collaborating Altliayncinog si Result O rienting Referralr Neitvwoerking E ndorsementizing Prioritizing Un Duties Figure 17 : Sub Core Variables of "Legitimizing" and " Credentializing" 150 As Figure 18 shows, the "Legitimizing" process can emerge by means of "Collaborating" with partners (either asymmetrical collaborating or reciprocal collaborating), "Referral Networking" and "Strategic Alliancing". The highest conceptual level ( “what” they do) The core variable of "Cultivating Recognition" Two primary sub core “ variables (to explain “Why” they accomplish cultivating Le gitimizing Credentializing recognition) (Project Based) (Peer Based) n Six secondary sub core w variable: (“How they o accomplish cultivating recognition is more T substantiated and e elaborated, and the “Why”is also explained. ap C All six secondary sub core f variables have their distinct o categories and sub- processes (“How” is further y substantiated and it elaborated, as well as s “Why”) er To convey an example only iv Asymmetric the two basic categories of Col laborating conditional collabUoratinng partners have been included Reciprocal in this illustration Collaborating Figure 18 : An Overview of the Conceptual Hierarchy of Levels (Vertically) and some of the Characteristics of the Concepts (Horizontally) 151 Collaborating Partners Referral Networking Visualizing Endorsementizing Professionalizing Result Orienting Focalizing Prioritizing duties Role Delineating "Credentializing" arises from the joint link of "Endorsementizing", "Result Orienting" and "Prioritizing Duties". The six secondary sub core variables have their distinct categories and sub-processes as detailed below: „Collaborating Partners” involves creating a working together agreement in such a way as to ensure each partner gains from the agreement. The process of collaborating with partners can be either asymmetrical or reciprocal. These two labels were derived by researcher due to his deep understanding of Theoretical Sensitivity by Glaser (1978). "Asymmetrical Collaborating" is a form of collaboration in which the weaker party in the collaboration is able to obtainw then benefits that the collaboration brings, whilst skilfully avoiding being domin aTteod by the more powerful partner. However the weaker partner is potentialply ealways more vulnerable. The more leverage the powerful partner has, the Cmoare this partner will strive to ensure that the project is implemented. In "Aosyfm metric Collaborations" the aim of the weaker partner is to manage to stkyilfu lly extract resources and finances from the dominant party without being orvserwi helmed. The e-learning providers ideally should attempt to transform thev "eAsymmetric Collaboration" to one characterised by a reciprocal relationshipn wiherever possible. The reason for this is that asymmetric relationships tend tUo be limited or reduced to being contractual relationships whereas reciprocal relationships always have a greater potential for developing beyond a single project. Glaser (1978) and Glaser and Strauss (1967) states several types of temporal properties including cyclical, spasmodic, perpetual. Cyclical refers to the event occurring in defined interval repeating. Spasmodic refers to occurring once within the process and perpetual refer to the properties occurring frequently (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Glaser, 1978). The temporal properties of "Asymmetrical Collaborating" and other forms of collaborating are detailed in Table 16 below. 152 Table 16 : Temporal Characteristics of the Secondary Sub Core Variables of "Cultivating Recognition" Secondary Sub core Temporal Characteristics Variables (Dynamics) Several different temporal Asymmetric Collaborating characteristics: Partners cyclical, spasmodic and perpetual Reciprocal Collaborating spasmodic Partners n Referral Networking perpetual w To Strategic Alliancing perpetual e p Endorsing perp a eCtual Result Orienting y o f perpetual and cyclical t Prioritizing duties rsi cyclical e “Reciprocal Collabnoriavting” has been defined as a process providing mutual benefit for the partiUes in terms of sharing power and status. The process involves two parties coming together to achieve agreed objectives by contributing different and unique skills and investment to the partnership. For e-learning providers to share the right of ownership of e-learning projects equally, they have to manoeuvre themselves into a position of parity. To ensure this, e-learning providers have been designing and signing various agreements and memoranda of understanding. All parties are obliged to sign such agreements to enter into the collaboration. The parties coming into a reciprocal collaboration expect to have equal power and status. However, if 153 one partner gains a higher status and greater power than the other in the collaboration, the collaborating process will change to an asymmetrical collaboration, thus ceasing to be a reciprocal collaboration. The collaboration tends to be entered into by the partners in order to secure funds, the strengthening of the programs and recognition. Referral networking has been defined as the process of both stimulating existing, and creating new, contacts. These connections and networks can be used for endorsing online learning projects, thereby increasing their ncredibility. This networking process is undertaken in order to capture more wopportunities for e- learning providers in terms of funding and further collab oTraotion, and for increasing the popularity of the online programs. Clients tend pto ebelieve in networking as soon as they see more e-learning providers‟ networksa for the same project and they tend to commission the program more willinglyf. OCne of the pre-requisites for securing funding from donors is to be part otf yan do activate referral networks. Such networks should be strong and well krnsowin in their host country. Successful e-learning providers work hard to cavptuere and build referral networking to ensure that they get recognized and in turnn icapture more funding. The referral networking process is ongoing and perpeUtual. E-learning providers are looking for new networks all the time to ensure a project is recognised and sustainable. The need for referral networking is more urgent when the party seeking resources or influence is lacking in credibility and experience. The process of referral networking is dynamic and fluid and changes as a member‟s credibility and influence increases or diminishes. Referral networking may begin with the weaker party being vulnerable but at later stages, as this party demonstrated more competence, the receiver of credibility and 154 influence can become the bestower of resources and influence. It is a continuous and reciprocal rather than a one way process. "Strategic Alliancing" occurs when a party or parties enter into a medium to long term process of connecting with other parties in order to secure the completion of a project with mutually beneficial outcomes. It is a process of working together for the purpose of delivery of online courses or to secure funding. Such processes include matching of the strategic objectives of one institution with the other. When matches are found, the parties whose objectives „match‟ each other form such alliances to ensure that all benefit from the alliance. Strategic alliances canw inncrease the rate of program delivery, recognition, secure credibility, popu lTarioty, recognition, project quality, and funding opportunities. A strategic alliapncee helps both institutions grow and design sustainable programs. Most fundCers atend to require a strategic alliance configuration (e.g. a university-universityo pfa rtnership) as a precondition of funding. Such alliances can be made and cetmyen ted through exchange of programs and staff. The „alliancing‟ institutions havre sreiciprocal alliancing characteristics in that they have equal power and status vine the management of the project. They tend to sign agreements to ensuren simooth delivery of the program. Strategic Alliancing usually takes place prior toU the commencement of a project and is usually triggered by the client‟s wish to reduce uncertainty and risk which can take the form of lack of secure funding, loss of students and of marketing access. The greater the perceived uncertainty and risk of the online learning project on the part of the client, the greater the need for strategic alliancing. "Endorsing" is the process of presenting professional work experience and academic qualifications to the client in a format which the client can easily 155 comprehend and perceive to be relevant to the particular needs of the client or clients. Endorsing‟s purpose is to create trust on the part of the client. The presentation of the professional‟s qualifications, experience and accumulated social credit is aimed at reducing the perceived risk to potential strategic partners and as a form of reassurance. E-learning providers use this process for proving their capability, competence and ability to ensure that the implementation and use of the product will go smoothly and the project will be effective. In addition e-learning providers use this professional endorsement strategy with the aim of creating confidence in their clients in terms of delivering projects on time annd of the desired quality. The e-learning providers should first believe ion wthemselves besides demonstrating a high level of knowledge and experteise Tin e-learning. If e-learning providers are able to do this they are more likely ato gpain the approval and confidence of their clients (e.g. funders, donors). In ofr dCer to demonstrate this they should be able to provide proof of their ability to soolve any and all e-learning implementation problems as well as displaying highi tleyvels of self confidence in their decision making. All of these are made moree porsssible through the kind of endorsement derived from strategic alliances (ans diviscussed in Section 5.5 above). This endorsement by respected third paUrties in turn increases their credibility in the eyes of senior managers. "Result orienting" is the “process of ensuring there are concrete results and achievements in the planned project so that clients can clearly recognize and acknowledge such efforts. It involves perpetual concentration on all key issues relating to the project, including synchronizing e-learning with conventional learning. This is achieved by 156 doing four things: visualizing, role delineating to avoid conflicts, focalizing, or being obsessive about details, and professionalising. The skilled e-learning professional tends to be very aware of what the successfully delivered project will look like long before any project has begun or is in its planning stage. In a few cases the process of result orienting happens cyclically. As soon one project is completed, the e- learning professional needs to look for another, thus making this a continuous and cyclical process. To ensure more funding, support, and promotion, e-learning providers try to ensure positive results from the previous projects. In order to activate recognition they tend to be result oriented. wn "Prioritizing Duties” involves a process of e nTsuoring that all tasks are sequenced in order of importance to epnseure the project‟s successful completion. C a The process helps to increase both coomfpetence on the part of those involved, as well as recognition. This process,i tliyke that result orienting, is usually cyclical and dynamic. It starts when ae tresndency of a failure to recognize the e-learning professional starts toi vbecome apparent. Sometimes prioritizing happens spasmodically [i.e Uat intervals]. The prioritizing process is usually triggered by the obvious lack of respect or recognition on the part of the top managers of respective institutions. When an e-learning provider does not receive recognition from top managers for what he/she is doing, s/he tends to prioritize his/her duties in order to increase results and reclaim recognition. These six secondary sub core variables are of vital importance in the process of resolving the main concern of e-learning providers, that of cultivating recognition. Embedded within the six secondary sub core variables is a number of important 157 concepts which help to explain the dynamics of the process of cultivating recognition. These will be discussed in the next section. 5.6. The Lesser Concepts of Cultivating Recognition The lesser, or lower level, concepts in the cluster of concepts around cultivating recognition are so called because, although important to the overall process of recognition, they form part of the third tier of the hierarchy of the respondents‟ main concern (See Figure 19). Each will be discussed in turn. wn e T o Cap of rsi ty niv e U Figure 19 : The Lesser Concepts of "Cultivating Recognition" (contained in the highlighted area) 158 Asymmetrical Collaborating was defined earlier as a concept that explains how the weaker party in the collaboration is able to obtain the benefits that collaboration with a stronger partner brings. Asymmetrical Collaborating is achieved by the weaker partner skilfully avoiding being dominated by the more powerful partner. In all collaborations each partner will have a slightly differing agenda from the other partner. The weaker partner is potentially always more vulnerable. The more leverage the powerful partner has, the more s/he will strive to ensure that the project is implemented. In asymmetric collaborations the weaker partners often skilfully manage to extract resources and finances from the dominant panrty without being overwhelmed. Tow Reciprocal Collaborating was defined in section 5p.5e as the process of achieving mutual benefit for the parties in the sharing of Cpowaer and status in a collaborative partnership by contributing their different anfd unique skills and investments to the project. E-learning providers will atte o tmyp t to transform an asymmetric collaboration to a reciprocal relationship or collarbsoriation wherever possible. The reason for this, as has been pointed out, is bveceause asymmetric relationships tend to be limited to being contractual relatnioniship (mainly involving signing of agreements), whereas reciprocal relationsUhips always have a greater potential for development beyond a single e-learning project. Result Orienting has been defined in 5.5 as the process of ensuring there are results and achievements in the planned project so that clients can clearly recognize such efforts and its four elements: visualizing with clarity and in detail prior to the commencement of the project what its final outcome will be. . . Role Delineating was described in Section 5.5 as the process of defining the specific duties and 159 responsibilities of each partner in the project in order to avoid conflicts, achieved by instituting and policing role delineating regimes to avoid conflicts. Focalizing was defined in terms of e-learning providers of staying attentive and having an obsessive attention to detail in designing and implementing a project. Professionalizing, the process of e-learning provider showing professionalism, and experience order to boost the e-learning provider‟s credibility. 5.7. The transition from raw data to the emergence of concepts wn The most critical factor in the transition from raw data Tto ofull conceptualization in the research process is the researcher‟s ability to reema in open while at the same time being highly focused in following the procesaseps intrinsic to the GT process. To be able to achieve this transition from rafw Cdata to conceptualization requires the researcher to be trained in theoreticyal soensitivity (Glaser 1978. 1998, 2006). This involves the researcher, prior tos thiet research taking place, being fully aware of the many different types of theeorertical coding possibilities that could reveal the latent patterns within the dantai.v The first stage of transitioning from data to concepts involves writing deUtailed theoretical memos immediately following each encounter with a respondent. Initially this reveals low-level descriptive codes or substantive codes. The second stage involves teasing out the theoretical codes. Finally the more „robust‟ theoretical code emerges, whereupon both past and future respondent encounters are sampled for this theoretical code. This is known as theoretical sampling. The transition from substantive codes to theoretical codes can only take place after several theoretical memos have been written. The researcher then constantly compares the substantive codes across all the theoretical memos. To 160 facilitate the emergence of these theoretical codes, both the theoretical memos and their substantive codes are sorted. Once some theoretical codes have begun to emerge, they too are subjected to the twin processes of constant comparison and sorting. There then comes a moment when the more robust theoretical codes emerge and these can then be used as a basis for theoretical sampling across subsequent respondent encounters. Following on from this, delimiting takes place. This is the process whereby the researcher focuses increasingly on the particular theoretical code that appears at this stage to be explaining or accounting for most of the variation in the data. The GT researcher has to be alert to then possibility of the emergence of more than one core variable candidate. In thois wstudy two theoretical codes presented as potential candidates for the coree va rTiable. The first candidate that emerged was asymmetric collaboration (AaCp). Figure 19 outline the memo sorting of AC. AC concept properties includfe :C · Being recognized and inc o treyas ing credibility i · Increased and kneowrns intellectual property over ownership v · New Operatnioni expansion U · Quality control and assurance · Project sustainability and growth · Attracting more donors and funding After careful comparing of the AC concept properties, another core variable, "cultivating recognition", emerged. The key to unlocking the core variable of cultivating recognition presented itself after the researcher returned repeatedly to all 161 the theoretical memos (see Appendix A.7) which were then constantly compared and sorted. What emerged was that all respondents were repeatedly expressing concern about not being fully appreciated or recognized by their various types of clients. After more sorting and comparing of these concepts and properties it became obvious that this lack of respect from the people commissioning a project was in fact a symptom of these e- learning professionals not being recognized. The researcher then returned to the data and theoretically sampled them for “cultivating recognition”. Following more constant comparison and sorting “cultivating recognition” emerged as the respondents‟ main concern. n Tow e Cap of rsi ty ive Un 162 Figure 20: Memo Sorting (Appendix A.7) P,'Oo,,e.c't ""<"a,T,_otine r ramit ioroinc R. tiprocc.. ' n , (,.Mntiolilinc C .. .. ,ko."bo",'." .,.,,.,., ow Syn(c:lvonii>li.n" r Imnt".·,l·Ipforoiej<«t T Ro.,I..ttiionmlllllii!p>,' e ap L., klmldn, Hoii., f C,,, yM .on. o.«..m.. .n. , ' it CYCaLJICALl ASYMMETlRUiCAl rs COLllLAABORATnlNG niv e U Asymmettrriical Collaborating ~ 163 The emergent theory represents the way in which the knowledge and understanding was derived from a combination of both observed data and the subsequent writing and sorting of many theoretical memos. The application of the procedures for the generation and grounding of concepts from the qualitative data come close to something that related to direct observation of the concepts together with their properties and data indicators. This was achieved through constantly comparing properties emerging from memos, through the application of the practice of „explication de text‟, and through taking into account the intenrchangeable data indicators and properties of the concepts (Glaser 1978, 2006o). w More details relating to Figure 20 are shown in Table 17 below and Appendix A .T7: e Table 17 : Explanations on the Prelimainpary Memos from Figure 20 C Memo f Explanations y o Transitioning The prrosceists undergone by the university E-learning provvieders who have been managing the changes. During the nimiplementation of IT projects university professionals U underwent a process of transition. In the course of these changes, they combined face to face learning with online learning to ensure a successful transition. 164 Asymmetric This concept explains how the weaker party in collaboration collaborating is able to obtain the benefits of collaboration whilst skillfully avoiding being dominated by the more powerful partner. In all collaborations each partner will have slightly differing agendas. The weaker partner is potentially always more vulnerable Focalizing Focalizing is the tendency of online nprofessionals to concentrate on their main responsibilitoy iwn order to ensure the project has been done well. TTo institutionalise online programs, E-learning providperse tend to focus on one course for conversions from a Cdirect learning to blended learning to partial online lea ry oninfg. t Pump Priming Being rdseriived from researchers deep understanding of Tihveoeretical Sensitivity by Glaser (1978), pump priming is the nprocess of making IT projects recognized and funded by U other external donors and funders Reciprocal Reciprocal collaboration is a process of mutual benefit to the Collaborating parties in sharing power and status. All parties entering in such collaborations have the same or equal power and status in the collaboration. 165 Visualizing The process of conceptualizing and achieving clarity and understanding of the final outcome of the project in realistic terms. The E-learning providers needs to have a vision to sustain IT project within their universities, the success of the projects depends on the creative thinking Positive Affirmationing A process of having positive confirmation and verification of online learning: a change from negative thninking to positive thinking. w To Side Stepping Side stepping is a pcoenflict avoidance strategy. Misunderstandings ariCse adue to lack of trust from the top management in oterfm s of including s idea from E-learning providers towtayrd s development of a project. rsi Strategic Alliancing Thvis eis a medium to long term strategy for connecting with, or (SA) nfoirming alliances with, other parties in order to secure the U completion of a project with mutually beneficial outcomes. It is a process of working together for the purpose of delivery of online courses or securing funding. Most universities in East Africa tend to alliance in order to increase program delivery, recognition, quality, and funding opportunities. 166 Referral Networking The process of creating contacts and networks for the purpose of endorsing online learning projects and increasing their credibility. It is done with the object of capturing more opportunities in terms of funding, collaboration, and increasing the popularity of the online programs. Credentializing Credentializing is the creation of increased credibility by the skilful use and promotion of the professionnal qualifications, experiences and accumulated sociaol wcredit of an online professional to diminish the p eTrception of risk. Online learning staff have been usipnge this technique to ensure that their clients believe th a aCt they are fully able to deliver projects on time and of th eo dfesired quality. ty Legitimizing On-liner sproifessionals find it problematic to communicate clievarely to their collaborative partners exactly what it is they nare doing. These problems are caused by a barrier of IT U technical jargon which the client partner rarely understands. Recognitizing It is the process of gaining credibility. 167 Project Credibility This is the process of creating trustworthiness in the process of delivering the project to reassure the client concerning its reliability and credibility. In order to be sustainable and to grow successfully the project needs to build its integrity and its standing with the clients, donors and partners. Synchronizing For the online learning project being delivered in the context Collaborative of a collaborative relationship to prospern it needs to be Relationships coordinated and to harmonize with othoerw projects within other collaborative relationships at the u nTiversity. pe Professionalizing The process of bringCinga professionalism, experience and competence to othef project for the purpose of managing hiatus and btoyos ting the IT professional‟s credibility. rsi Bilateral Concording Thve eprocess involved in two parties reaching agreement on nhiow to run the project to ensure the success and U sustainability of the project. Role Delineating The process of defining the role of each partner in the project in order to avoid the development of conflicts within the project. 168 Project Integrating A process of putting together different projects, regardless of their background within the university, for the purpose of increasing their sustainability and success, and ensuring support from the entire body of university online professionals. Hiatus Management It was derived from the Researcher‟s deep Theoretical sensitivity. Hiatus means “a break” (dictionnary.com ). When there is break in continuity and a froactwuring of harmonious relationships, feelings of uncerta iTnty on the part of those involved in the design anpd eimplementation of an online project arise and a a nC hi tus in the smooth running of the operation results. y o f Since a shiiattus has the potential to escalate into conflict, hiatues srtrategies are needed to manage the situation. Online nstiavff have a difficult time when they have side stepped a U problem instead of confronting and managing it. 5.8. The Core Variable of "Cultivating Recognition" Previous sections have discussed the process involved in the discovery of the "Cultivating Recognition" theory. This section will present a discussion of the theory in more detail. 169 The "Cultivating Recognition" process involves the recurrent creation and recreation of attempts on the part of professionals to gain public acknowledgement of achievement in order to both commission and implement ongoing e-learning implementation. In the research process “Cultivating Recognition" represents a latent pattern found everywhere in the data and which emerges during constant comparison of the properties of theoretical memos. In the course of the study, as has been outlined, the "Cuwltivanting Recognition" pattern emerged during the constant comparing of the cTolleocted data according to the following criteria for "Cultivating Recognition": pe (1) as the most stable meaning thaCt uanderlies nearly every one of the compared elements of the data, of (2) as the best abstractisoni t(cyonceptualization) that fits almost every one of the compared overt behaeviorur incidences v (3) as the brienfesit and most concise explanation of the most important and most problemaUtic issue for the people whose behaviour incidences have been compared. In essence, it is the conceptualization which „best fits‟ their main concern. "Cultivating recognition" represents: (a) a commonality within the wide variation in behaviour of the e-learning providers. It integrates practically all the e-learning providers‟ practices that have been compared and coded. 170 (b) a huge variation in behaviour that can be explained by a few distinctions within the same underlying meaning. "Cultivating Recognition" as a core variable is highly stable in its core meaning and highly variable due to its representation of, and its accounting for, high variation in behaviour. "Cultivating Recognition" is the main concern of the e-learning providers, representing the essence of relevance reflected in the data as seen from the perspective of the participants. "Cultivating Recognition" shows how the main concern is resolved. "Cultivating Recognition" is basically what nthese e-learning providers engage in on a continual basis. They gain "publoic wacknowledgment" by "Legitimizing" projects and by "Credentializing" their profe sTsionalism. e 5.9. The Emergence of Theoretical aCopdes from Substantive Concepts f C It is important to reiterate the matiny d if oferences between two types of codes, the Substantive and Theoretical cordsesi. Substantive coding represents the very first attempts to highlight thosiev deata which the analyst believes may have importance beyond the simple desncription of the context of the data. These codes are labelled and often gerundedU in order to sensitise the researcher to the processes and patterns which are likely to be revealed at a later stage in the research process. The theoretical coding represents the conceptual code or codes that arise from the synthesis of the substantive codes. To move from substantive codes to theoretical codes is a tricky and often elusive process. It was achieved by examining the interplay between theoretical memos. The main mechanism for this is known as the constant comparison method. According to this methodology the researcher 171 engaged both the intellect and intuition to achieve a shift in perspective from low level context based description to higher level conceptual abstract The theoretical codes arise from the synthesis of the substantive codes. Both substantive concepts and theoretical codes are the building blocks of "Cultivating Recognition" theory. Various names have been used at different conceptual levels to name substantive concepts (Glaser 1998). These include "core variable", "sub core variables", "categories", "sub-categories". In previous sections, the core variable concept of "Cultivating Recognition" has been explainned, and the two primary and the six secondary sub core variables of "Cultivaotinwg Recognition" have been briefly introduced. The substantive concepts that aTre on a lesser conceptual level of "Cultivating Recognition" have also been intrpodeuced. a ”Cultivation of Recognition" can be explfa inCed in terms of “basic social processes” (BSP). This BSP connects substayn tivoe concepts (the six secondary sub core variables), and the theoretical scoitde into two inseparable three-in-one structure (Glaser 1978). This is briefley erxplained with reference to the two primary sub core variables of "Cultivatinngi vRecognition". The attachment of theoretical codes (e.g. processes, sub-proUcesses, loops) to substantive concepts (variables, categories) within the theory of "Cultivating Recognition" can be explained as follows: Without the gaining of external acknowledgement recurrently taking place, the very survival of both e-learning providers and e-learning projects may be at stake. Thus people in e-learning instinctively have a pivotal sensitivity and alertness to the importance of the emergence of “gaining external acknowledgement”. The “achievement of external acknowledgement”, of many kinds and types is their pivotal 172 main concern. Thus, "Cultivating Recognition" as a main concern issue occurs in many guises and in many facets and sub-facets. “Gaining of acknowledgement” does not occur by accident. It emerges from a series of deliberate activities on the part of those seeking to gain acknowledgement for their services. Accordingly, people involved in e-learning business deliberately seek and sustain public acknowledgement. This process is ongoing even during a period which is unfavourable for “gaining public acknowledgement”. Opportunities are continually being re-created or remodelled by e-learning pronviders to gain an edge over competitors in e-learning practice and delivery. Essoenwtial to this process is "Cultivating Recognition" which is also the recurrent, pivo taTl and prime solution to the problematic nature of the main concern. ap e Thus, "Cultivating Recognition" drivesf aCnd directs behaviour. In this sense "Cultivating Recognition" as a conceypt poartly explains itself and its own variation. It explains certain problems occursrinigt in achieving e-learning objectives and gives the reasons why e-learning proveiderrs pursue a certain course of action or non-action and how they do this. niv As has been dUescribed, Cultivating Recognition‟s theoretical and substantive codes signify the two main emerging features of Cultivating Recognition. One feature of "Cultivating Recognition" is the problematic nature of the main concern of the participants being studied, together with the problematic nature of its potential resolving. This feature is represented by its variables, categories and properties. The other feature of "Cultivating Recognition" is that of accounting for the actual resolving of the main concern. This feature is modelled by the emerging theoretical 173 codes or theoretical concepts. On the primary sub core level an “inseparable two-in- one structure” is emergent. On the secondary sub core level and below, the principal theoretical codes emerge as varieties of a basic social process that forms a loop. The secondary sub core process-loop has been called the core process-loop of "Cultivating Recognition". This core process loop has its sub-processes which may in turn have sub-processes. "Cultivating Recognition" emerges as a concept in many guises in the data and can be conceived of as a multivariate variable with many dimensions, being highly variable and dependent. Conditions and context can easily cause variations (Glaser, 1978), yet is unchangeably omnipreswent nin the data. . The main dimensions can be conceived of as the two primTaryo sub core variables of "Cultivating Recognition" as well as being conceivede o f as the six secondary sub core variables of "Cultivating Recognition". Compaarepd to "Cultivating Recognition" as the core variable, the six secondary sub fc oCre variables represent the concept of "Cultivating Recognition" as more spyec ifoic and less general (at a lesser conceptual level) patterns of it. These six sescointr dary sub core variables represent distinct, stable and exhaustive stereotypevs eof variability. Yet, these six secondary sub core variables can also themselvesn ibe conceived of as multivariate variables with many dimensions. TheseU dimensions constitute the categories, or sub-categories, or sub- sub-categories of "Cultivating Recognition". The main dimensions of "Cultivating Recognition" can be conceived of in terms of its main sub-processes which can also themselves be conceived as multivariate processes with many dimensions thus making "Cultivating Recognition" a highly complex multivariate theory. Much of the process of the fitting of the multivariate concepts or substantive and theoretical codes in a Classic GT can be conceived of 174 as the practising of a kind of “qualitative mathematics” (Glaser 1978). By a process of grounding in the data collected from the e-learning providers, being studied, these qualitative variables or theoretical concepts are made specific. Their fit, their use in the process of explaining the main concern, and their relevancy to e-learning implementation have been verified repeatedly by properties and interchangeable indices in the data during the process of grounding. The two features of "Cultivating Recognition" are semantically identical in the definition of "Cultivating Recognition". Their actual linking is seen recurrently in the data. The emergence of convenient and accessible practices to users of e-learning practices is the pivowtal mnain concern and these also emerged from a series of deliberate activitie sT ono the part of e-learning providers. "Cultivating Recognition" as a main concperne recurrently attaches itself, for example, to the requirements inherent in a twoa-in-one structure, or a basic social process for the resolving of the main fc oCncern (Glaser, 1978). The common properties of the substantive variayble so, and the variety of emerging theoretical codes, indicate how this procersssinigt of "Cultivating Recognition" is being triggered. Some of these commovn eproperties are, for example, “Credentializing” and “Legitimizing”. Becaunsei "Cultivating Recognition" possesses these two features, both the problem Uand its actual resolution, it is not so much a theory describing “what” e-learning providers do, as a theory that conceptually accounts for “why” they accomplish, or do not accomplish, the task or project. Its variables and categories as well as its processes and sub-processes, conceptually explain “how” "Cultivating Recognition" is carried out, basically “how” e-learning providers manage to gain recognition on a continuous basis. 175 5.10. "Legitimizing" and "Credentializing", the two Primary Sub Core Variables of "Cultivating Recognition" In section 5.4 of the thesis, the properties and characteristics of both "Legitimizing" and "Credentializing" were explained. In this section the importance of these two primary sub core variables will be outlined. 5.10.1. "Legitimizing" - a project based variable of "Cultivating Recognition" "Legitimizing" has been defined as the process of ensurwing nthat a project is delivered, valid and sustainable. The process of "LegitimTizinog" is a fairly tricky one for e-learning providers to achieve. "Legitimizing" can eon ly happen with the approval of respected third parties. These third parties soampetimes have difficulty prior to the project‟s commencement understanding thef fuCll implications of e-learning in terms of increasing educational effectivenesys aond quality. One of the main barriers experienced by these third partisesi its the inability to understand clearly the technical jargon employed by e-leavrneingr providers working in this field. E-learning providers also often find it prnobilematic to communicate clearly and precisely to their collaborative partnUers what it is they are doing. In order to reduce the potential for misunderstanding they have to legitimize their actions. As soon as the "legitimizing" has been achieved, the project gains greater acceptance, which in turn leverages future funding. As was described in previous sections of chapter 5, "legitimizing" is a perpetual process throughout which the e- learning providers have to ensure the project is legitimized and is respected (See Appendix A.7). The main symptom of the lack of legitimization is the lack of respect 176 shown to e-learning providers by some clients and funders. The instances of increased respect from top managers has been shown to be more frequent when e- learning providers employ three strategies in the course of working with partners: "Collaborating" "Referral Networking" and "Strategic Alliancing". These processes need to be present if legitimizing is to be successful. Firstly e-learning providers need to collaborate asymmetrically or reciprocally with other experienced partners prior to the formal submission of funding submissions, as well as initiating the process (e.g. proposal writing, feasibility studny,). Secondly, they need to make full use of their existing referral networkos wso that the potential client or funder has more confidence in their proposal. FTinally, e-learning providers are more successful when, prior to and as part of thpe eproposal document, they have already entered into formal strategic alliance s Cwitha partners respected in the field. f It has also been found that succeyss fuol e-learning providers are able to gain more acceptance in their e-learnings pirtojects when they are able to simultaneously synchronize several differeenrt e-learning projects due to the potential for sustainability from onen priovject to another that synchronicity could deliver. U 5.10.2. "Credentializing" - a Peer Based Variable of "Cultivating Recognition" "Credentializing" has been defined as the creation of increased client belief in the e-learning providers' competence to execute a project on time and within budget. In order to successfully accomplish the "Credentializing" process, e-learning providers need to skilfully articulate three key processes, as discussed here below. 177 Firstly, all the claims and statements of accomplishments and achievements, made by the e-learning providers must be endorsed by respected external third parties. Secondly, the e-learning providers must be able to both understand and execute project priorities by the skilful accomplishment of the process of "Prioritizing". Finally, the e-learning providers must develop a results orientated mindset by cultivating the skills involved in "Result Orienting". n 5.11. The Six Secondary Sub Core Variables oof w"Cultivating Recognition" e T The data collected in this research focused aonp the main concern of e-learning providers working in East Africa, name lCy that of "Cultivating Recognition". "Cultivating Recognition" was achieve do bfy e-learning providers by means of the systematic integration of several diiftfeyrent variables. In the previous section 5.10 of this chapter the two main priemarrsy sub core variables were explained. This section of the chapter will show howiv each of these primary sub core variables are derived from two groups of threeU sencondary sub core variables. The primary sub core variable of "Legitimizing" is created by the interaction of three secondary sub core variables: "Collaborating, "Referral Networking" and "Strategic Alliancing". The primary sub core variable of "Credentializing" occurs when the following three secondary sub core variables are present: "Results Orienting", "Prioritizing Duties" and "Endorsing". 178 5.11.1. "Collaborating" The research has discovered that "Collaborating" with partners can happen in two different ways, either asymmetrically or reciprocally. This is because in all collaborations each partner will have a slightly differing agenda. Where there is a power imbalance between the parties "Asymmetrical Collaborating” will manifest. Where there is a greater degree of power equity between the parties, "Reciprocal Collaborating" will occur. It always requires more skill on the part of the weaker party in an asymmetrical collaboration. n As been described, in asymmetric collaborations the w T woeaker partners skilfully manage to extract resources and finances from the edo minant party without being overwhelmed. E-learning providers who are part aof pa collaboration tend to attempt to transform the collaboration from an asymmfe trCic to a reciprocal relationship wherever possible. The reason for this is that a soymmetric relationships tend to be limited to being contractual relationships. y rs it "Asymmetric Collaboivrateing" is likely to have several different temporal characteristics. The ntemporal characterises can be cyclical, spasmodic and also perpetual. "AsymmUetric Collaborating" occurs because, once a project is completed, the collaborating partners start again on a new e-learning project. Thus the process becomes cyclical as the need for change arises. For example, when it is necessary to convert direct learning to e-learning, this becomes the trigger for "Asymmetric Collaborating". Such a change is facilitated or triggered by lack of physical infrastructure and resources in the direct learning or face to face learning situation. During the implementation process the need for more partners will often arise. This 179 in turn will trigger more collaboration within the e-learning project. Other factors which facilitate the refining of such collaboration can be the rapid changes in technology and the availability of funding and of e-learning experts. A change involving one or more of these factors will lead to the start of a new e-learning collaboration or agreement, or to a process of refining the current e-learning collaborations. This in turn rejuvenates the e-learning project. As soon as the junior e-learning partner is able to stand, the e-learning provider tends to start e-learning projects running in tandem with partnering projects and with new e-learning partners. This research has revealed the following to be propertiews nof "Asymmetrical Collaborating": To 1) Recognized and increased credibility, pe 2) Increased and known intellectual p a rCoperty over ownership, f 3) New operation expansion, qu aolity control and assurance, y 4) Project sustainability asndit growth, r 5) Attracting morev deonors and funding. i As has been descrUibedn in previous sections, "Asymmetrical Collaborating tends to be spasmodic when certain relationships create unanticipated problems and necessitate the putting of strategies in place to deal with the unforeseen problems. Asymmetric relationships can also be perpetual. Even in harmonious relationships conflict of interest can exist, or agenda priorities differ. To avoid and deal with these issues it is also quite feasible that "Asymmetric Collaborating" will also have to be perpetual. As has been described, "Reciprocal Collaborating" involves mutual benefit accruing to the e-learning provider parties in the sharing of power and status, both 180 contributing different and unique skills and investment and having a greater potential for development beyond a single e-learning project. For e-learning providers to share equally the right of ownership of e-learning projects, they have to manoeuvre themselves into a position of parity. To ensure this, e-learning providers design and sign various agreements and memoranda of understanding and so enter into the collaboration. While the parties in such an arrangement are accorded equal power and status, should one e-learning partner acquire higher status and power than any or all of the others, the collaborating relationship changes to ann "Asymmetrical Collaboration" and ceases to be reciprocal. ow This research has revealed that "Reciprocal Collab oTrating" is spasmodic, can happen at any stage of the project and initially e a tpends to be for the purposes of securing funds and strengthening the progr aCms and their recognition. As soon as such goals are achieved, the process eondfs. At this point the relationship tends to evolve into new e-learning collaboriattiyons as the situation changes. s On the one hand, while erarpid changes in technology result in an increase in the numbers of students natitevnding universities resulting in increased pressure on the government to enroUl as many students as possible, thus creating a situation in which reciprocal relationships flourish, on the other hand, the lack of qualified staff and expertise triggers the process of the universities looking for partners in order to start staff exchange programs to develop the staff and secure sufficient numbers of experts. One of the criteria for a university to receive funding for a particular project, is to have a collaborating partner. However the completion of the project will signify the end of the Reciprocal Collaboration. This research has revealed the creation of 181 more referral networks, and an increase in the degree of mutual benefits derived in the process, to be the properties of "Reciprocal Collaborating". 5.11.2. "Referral Networking" : "Referral networking" has been defined as the process of stimulating existing networks and creating new contacts for the harmonious implementation of a project. n One of the pre-requisites for securing recognition and sucocewss (e.g. funding from donors) is for the e-learning provider to possess ande to Tactivate referral networks. Such networks should be strong and be recoganisped in their respective countries. Successful e-learning providers work hard to cCapture and build "Referral Networking" in order to ensure that they get recogn iozefd and are able to capture more funding. "Referral Networking" processes aitrey ongoing and perpetual. E-learning providers continually search for netwoerksr tso ensure their projects are sustainable. The need for "Referral Networking" is imvore urgent when the party seeking resources or influence is short of credibilitUy annd experience. The process of "Referral Networking" is dynamic and changes as credibility and influence fluctuates. A "Referral Networking" process may begin with the weaker party being vulnerable but at a later stage, as more competence is demonstrated and recognition gained, the receiver of credibility and influence can become the bestower of resources and influence. It is not a one way process. This research has discovered that the creation of more connections can be the catalyst for receiving 182 more project funds. It also ensures a higher level of client confidence through the process of legitimization. 5.11.3. "Strategic Alliancing" "Strategic Alliancing" has been defined as a medium to long term process of connecting with other parties in order to secure the completion of a project with mutually beneficial outcomes. It is a process in the course of which parties work together fonr the purpose of delivering online courses, or for securing funding. Such oprwocesses include the matching of the strategic objectives of one institution to t hTe other. When two parties find a „match‟ they form an alliance in such a way asp toe ensure that all parties benefit from the alliance. Most e-learning providers ina East Africa tend to form strategic alliances with the purpose of increasing fp rCogram delivery, recognition, securing credibility, popularity, project qualityt,y an do funding opportunities with other e-learning providers (e.g. universities, conrssultiants, ) in Africa or abroad. " e Strategic Alliancing"i vhelps both institutions to develop and ensure sustainable programs and moUst npotential funders tend to require a "Strategic Alliancing" configuration as a precondition of funding. Such alliances can be made and cemented through exchange of programs and staff. The alliancing institutions have "Reciprocal Alliancing" characteristics in that they have equal power and status in the management of the projects. They tend to sign agreements to ensure smooth delivery of programs. Strategic alliancing usually happens prior to the commencement of a project and is triggered by the desire of the clients to reduce uncertainty and risk. The greater the perceived uncertainty and risk of the e-learning 183 project by the client, the greater the need for strategic alliancing. This research discovered that increased collaboration and funding tend to lead to increased legitimization. This research has revealed that "Legitimizing" must take place in order for e- learning providers to "Cultivate Recognition" and cannot happen unless the e- learning providers are also able to credentialize themselves. The three secondary sub core variables involved in the achievement of "Credentializing": "Endorsing", "Results Orienting" and "Prioritizing Duties” have been mentioned. wn 5.11.4. "Endorsing" To "Endorsing" was defined as the process by which thpe ee-learning provider presents his or her professional work experience and acCadaemic qualifications to the client in a clear and comprehensible format so as to dfe monstrate the professional‟s level of skill and competency. o ity Endorsement by respecteed rthsird parties bestows credibility on the professional e- learning provider. E-learinving providers are required to prove to their clients, their communities and tUheirn donors that they are capable of implementing and sustaining a project before obtaining their trust and support. Endorsement helps e-learning providers find ways to create trust and confidence by means of demonstrating their professional competence to their clients through a combination of their qualifications and prior experience. 184 5.11.5. "Result Orienting" "Result orienting" has been defined as the process of ensuring that there are measurable deliverables pre-planned within the project. This allows the clients to recognize whether these agreed stages in the project have been fulfilled. The skilled and successful e-learning provider will be aware of what the successfully delivered end project will look like long before it has begun. The issue for the e-learning provider is how to communicate this clearly to the client and partners prior to the start of any project. n This can be achieved by the e-learning provider doing w T foour things. Firstly, s/he should be skilled in the process of "Visualizing” inveolv ing clearly envisaging the successfully completed project prior to its commaenpcement. Secondly, s/he should institute and police or monitor "Role Delinefa tiCng" regimes in order to avoid conflicts. Thirdly s/he should not hesitate to be oobsessive about details within each stage of the project. This ensures the ongoitinyg concentration of all involved in the project on all key issues relating to thee er-slearning project, including synchronizing e- learning with conventional leanrniinvg. Finally s/he should demonstrate a high degree of professionalism anUd competence throughout so that unforeseen crises such conflict hiatus can be dealt with timeously and effectively. The more skilled the e-learning professional is in this process the more likely staff will work together to ensure the intended results are achieved, which is the necessary prerequisite to "Cultivating Recognition". For example, some teachers are reluctant to introduce or incorporate e-learning in their teaching. This reluctance can be as a result of a lack of result orienting on the part of these teachers who then 185 to fail to be recognized. Those who tend to be result oriented, and are prepared to sacrifice their time and energy and "volunteer" their services, manage to achieve their teaching goals. They do not only volunteer to participate in new ventures, but they also are also strongly attuned to “Result Orienting" and are recognized for their achievements. "Result Orienting" is a perpetual process. E-learning providers get recognition benefits from the leverage which result orienting brings. To attract more partners and clients one needs endorsement from trusted partners. That menans that, as soon as one project is completed, the e-learning professional needos wto start searching for another, thus engaging in a continuous cyclical process. ET-learning providers and e- learning projects tend to lack recognition, while athpe deemand for recognition in this field is growing, thus triggering result orien tinCg as a way of gaining recognition. To ensure more funding, support, and proomfotion, both those involved in e-learning projects and e-learning providers nieteyd to ensure positive results from their previous projects. Thus being more resurlts oriented initiates and ensures recognition. e 5.11.6. "Prioritizingn Divuties" "PrioritiziUng Duties” means ensuring that all tasks in the delivery of a project are sequenced in order of importance to ensure the project‟s successful completion, as well as increasing the competence of staff and securing recognition for the provider. E-learning providers make use of prioritizing as a way of "Credentializing" their work. This process starts when there is a failure on the part of potential clients to recognize a particular e-learning provider. Sometimes "Prioritizing" happens 186 spasmodically. A lack or absence of a prioritizing process in the design and implementation of a project can trigger various negative responses from an existing or potential client. These include lack of respect for or recognition of the provider. The acceptance and implementation of the innovative ideas of e-learning providers by their clients and by respective institutions, underpins and reinforces their professionalism. Thus all of the three secondary sub core variables have to be present in order to ensure that the E-learning providers are able to gain effective "Credentializing". wn 5.12. The Core Variable of "Cultivating Rec oTgonition" Appendix A.3 explains the core variable of "Cpuletivating Recognition" in more detail. "Cultivating Recognition", the main cConcaern of respondents, and the core variable of this thesis, comprises of 14o inft erlocking elements. These include two primary and six secondary sub coreit vyar iables and six lesser-level concepts. . 5.13. Summary ers This chapter covernedi vthe emergence of the theory of "Cultivating Recognition". Starting with procUess in which the "Cultivating Recognition" emerged as a core variable. Also discussed were the concepts that comprise the respondents' main concern, the process involved in the transition from raw data to the emerged theoretical concepts, the concepts and properties of the core variable, detailed the process from substantive codes to theoretical codes, the five secondary sub-core categories and all issues including concepts which emerged in "Cultivating Recognition". The next chapter will use "Cultivating Recognition" as the basis for a comparative literature review. 187 Chapter 6 A Comparative Literature Review of “Cultivating Recognition” This comparative literature review of "Cultivating Recognition" has four main sections. The first section exemplifies the objectives of the comparative literature review. The second section highlights certain apposite comparisons with other Classic GT studies. The third section will provide compawrisonns with another established „cultivating of recognition‟ theory found in the lTiteroature. The final section demonstrates where this author‟s model of "Cultivaetin g Recognition" is situated within the existing body of literature. apC 6.1. Exemplification of the coomfp arative literature review objectives ity The body of literature weithrins Information Systems (IS), business management and other related areas iivs enormous and continues to grow. It is highly diverse in terms of contexUt, norigin of data, theoretical perspectives, and research methodologies. Glaser (1978) suggests that any Classic Grounded Theory literature review should be open for literature comparison outside the fields of enquiry (to include, for example, the natural sciences). As a result the potential offered in the literature to draw comparisons within that which features the theory of "Cultivating Recognition" is almost limitless. The purpose of this comparative review is to situate the generated GT of "Cultivating Recognition” within the body of extant knowledge and to assess its 188 position and place within the main body of relevant literature. Such comparison should be conceptual in nature (i.e. the focus should be on the comparison of concepts), rather than contextual (i.e. should not be based on the background to or origin of the data). This suggests a selective comparison (Glaser, 1978). The data and core variable in this thesis does not obviously, at fist glance fit into traditional Information Systems (i.e. within Information Systems generally, electronic learning, business, and others. The new substantive concept of "Cultivating Recognition" is partly comparable to substantive concepts used nwithin existing IS theories. The theoretical code of “Cultivating Recognition” osewems to be partly or wholly incomparable to theoretical codes used within the eTxisting IS theory. e "Cultivating Recognition" is an example of thea theporetical code of “the inseparable two-in one structure” that connects the ft wCo primary sub core variables. The existence of this theoretical code wouyld souggest that much existing theory cannot be compared with the model of s"Ciutltivating Recognition", at least at the present conceptual level of the modeel rof "cultivating recognition". Since the comparison has nothing to do with then quievstion of which is better, it would be quite unreasonable to require that this liteUrature review should encompass all the main literature within the Information Systems (IS) area. It would, on the other hand, be reasonable to expect that some comparison would be made with literature that has never, or rarely, been cited within the literature of Information Systems. In any case, to compare every single piece of literature that has been written on some particular concept to establish if it is potentially related to some concept within the theory of "Cultivating Recognition" would be impossible. 189 It is also impossible and unnecessaryto make comparisons with the literature dealing with each emergent concept or every indicated conceptual relationship found within the theory of "Cultivating Recognition". As was described in the previous chapter, the theory of "Cultivating Recognition" is an integrated theory, based on its core variables, which are on three different conceptual levels (core, primary sub core and secondary sub core), and the conceptual relationships among these core variables, as well as their lesser-level categories. Each concept and each conceptual relationship is accorded significance according to its place in the integrated theory, that is according to its relationship to each of the other wconncepts and each conceptual relationship. For example, if one of the six se cTonodary sub core variables of "Cultivating Recognition" is omitted, the five preemaining secondary sub core variables will lose most of their meaning. Thae reason for this is the level of importance of the indirect and direct relatiofn sChips between these variables in terms of explaining the meaning of "Cultivaytin go Recognition" in all its facets. Whatever is to be compared within the literatrusre iwtill have a definite place and significance in an integrated theory, althougvh ethe comparing of one concept with another will to some degree involve other nreliated concepts. In order to fully understand the conceptual delimiting of this litUerature review, it is necessary to fully understand the delimiting of this study. Thus some points explained in previous sections will be briefly repeated. Due to the choice of research methodology, this research has been delimited to discovering respondents‟ main concern and continuously resolving this concern for the subjects of this research. In generating the theory of "Cultivating Recognition", the researcher has taken the approach of delimiting the findings in terms of what is of particular importance to, and problematic for, these e-learning providers working in 190 East Africa. The agenda and substantive interests of those being studied set the agenda for and ground the research outcomes in this agenda. Use of this particular research methodology has up to this point been rare, and in a sense “contrary” to „mainline‟ research methodology in its avoidance of many of the elements of traditional research methodology, such as a pre-framed “professional interest” perspective, favouring the “a priori” over the “a posteriori” regarding fit of concepts, and delivering research that is grounded in the agendas of the established professional research communities rather than in the agenda of thnose being studied (Glaser, 1992). Thus when a comparison is drawn, the stwandard “professional interest” approach for delimiting a research project is suTbsotantially different to the GTM. The standard approach essentially delimits thee re search to what is seen as professionally important, and hence appropriatelya pprofessionally problematic, for the researcher and the research community fi nCvolved. This may be due to a long standing attachment to a particular ryes eoarch methodology, or to an adherence to a particular research program. Tshuist in standard methodology, the agenda of the researcher and/or his/herv reeserarch community sets the agenda for the research by preframing it from then peirspective of their own research community, and results in researchers deliverUing research outcomes that are grounded in a particular research agenda. While it cannot be denied that all research is in some way „grounded‟, Classic GTM as it is used in this study is based on a different concept of grounding to that used in standard research methodology, one that has little or nothing to do with the standard meaning of the concept of grounding (Glaser, 1978; 1998). CGTM cannot be said to be informed by a pre-framed grounding in pre-existent literature, or by a pre-determined theoretical perspective and in terms of predetermined conceptual usage(Glaser, 2001). In standard research methodology there is a 191 significant amount of “a priori” in place before the start of research and the “a posteriori” requirements are fulfilled by statistical testing or data description. This can in turn result in the criteria for a literature review of such research themselves becoming standardized. These particular standards for a literature review cannot apply to a Classic GT study (Glaser, 1978). The particular research approach of Classic GT methodology means that the outcomes of the research may be conceptually very different from those that are pervasive in the literature. This also means thnat the scope for discursive and meaningful comparison with other literature omawy become restricted due to some degree of incommensurability (Glaser, 1998 ).T It is unlikely that I will find in standard research theory and methodology alitepra eture, within the context from which my research data has been derived, eCxactly the same concepts as those in the literature on emergent theories of “ Coultfiv ating Recognition”. This delimiting also makes it more possible to achievei t„syaturation‟ in the literature comparison process. Saturation point is reached wrhsen the addition of new pieces of literature to the literature review does noitv preovide new or noteworthy conceptual properties, insights or perspectives inU ternms of the specifics of one‟s research. Literature reviews of classic GT studies tend to be much shorter than those of more traditional studies (Glaser, 1978). Firstly, this GT literature is delimited to emergent concepts. Secondly, through saturation the comparison delimits itself. Besides being conceptual, a comparative Classic Grounded Theory literature review should be discursive in nature; it should not follow a „passive‟, uncritical, descriptive or listing process (Glaser, 1978; 1992; 1998). Discursive comparing implies a comparison that is characterised by some form of analysis, argument and critical evaluation (Glaser, 192 1992). It may question pre-existent literature according to ground indications, and it may offer directions for new research, including evidentiary research (e.g. statistically testing, qualitatively corroborating, or hypothetical-deductive research) (Glaser, 1978). A discursive comparison of the literature also involves finding indications of fits to concepts in the pre-existent literature that may indicate usability in terms of “Culitivating Recognition” theory . It also means finding indications of how an emergent concept of the theory of "cultivating recognition" could be modified or not modified in the light of a particular concept, hypothesis or theory found in the literature. As mentioned before, “fit” is another term for validity, bwut naccording to CGT it means fit „in action‟ and usage, as part of an ongoing Tprocess, not simply fit by testing. In a discursive comparison it may become pneece ssary whenever possible to synthesize much of the literature, and thus, ian a sense, to „transcend‟ it. This synthesizing may be carried out in differentf w Cays. It may for example, be carried out by delimiting a comparison to a groyup of paradigms or research programs. It may also occasionally also be carrisedi tout by comparing just one particular piece of representative literature (avrteicler or book) that could be said to be representative of a much larger body of litneraiture. A discursive and conceptually delimited comparison of the literature also Uimplies a process that is coherent from topic to topic (Glaser, 1992). It will become unavoidable to exclude some issues that some researchers may find relevant, and to include some issues that others may find less relevant, depending on the theoretical or methodological perspectives of those evaluating the research. This also means that some literature will be reviewed without being included or referred to in the research. The bypassing of this literature does not mean that it is considered of less merit or as having less relevance to the research. It simply means that this literature is not considered important in the given context of 193 conceptual comparison, a comparison which follows the chosen methodology (Glaser, 1992). Thus, the literature review and comparison will be conceptually and not contextually delimited. Conceptual delimiting means comparing emergent concepts - substantive codes, theoretical codes, conceptual hypotheses - to pre- existent concepts and hypotheses such as those in existing literature (Glaser, 1992; 1998; 2001). No comparison will be made with literature where conceptual relatedness cannot be found. The potential literature to be compared is not restricted to the contextual literature on Information Systems and related subjects; it includes subject areas and disciplines as contextually distant as the nwaturnal sciences. In a sense, the compared literature can be seen as new “data ” Tto boe constantly compared with the emergent theory. This new “data” may modpify eor refine the theory, or provide new perspectives on the emergent theory and itas potential role in the literature, as well as requiring other views from other pfo sCitions in the research community. The structure of this chapter is as followys: Foirst, some examples and brief explanations are given to illustrate and highrligshti tthe difference between a conceptual comparison and a contextual comparisoen. Second, a comparison is made with other Classic GT studies within businesns iavnd related fields. A justification for such a comparison is also the relative uUniformity of methodological approach as well as similarity of research fields. Third, a conceptual comparison is made with other literature that has been selected by applying two main selection procedures: (1) a variety of search criteria have been used to find conceptually related literature and a comparison has been made with whatever emerged from this search, (2) comparison is made with other more or less known and recognised literature that was selected because it had some obvious conceptual relatedness. Fourth, the whole model representation of 194 Cultivating Recognition is conceptually compared with other models within and outside the realms of the social sciences. 6.2. Examples of the differences between conceptual and contextual delimitating in literature reviews „Partner collaborating‟ is a “burning” topic among e-learning providers working in East Africa. Various local and international conferences have endlessly deliberated on this concept. They conceive of it as a highly dependent variable, which it obviously is. Also, most scholars in the field seem to concur thatn without strategic collaborating, there can be no e-learning successes, due to othew fact that, as Ahmed (2004:47) argues, they "could provide the alternativee w aTy for cost sharing and for leveraging access to education”. According to athpis view it could be argued that concept should be the main focus of a comfp aCrative literature review. It could also be argued that a review of some of the hy poothetical-deductive research be concertedly carried out within the African ansd iitnyternational contexts. The following sections will explain why such comparisoensr may not be the ones most relevant to this and similar studies. niv 6.2.1. Pre-framUed theory-building with a high focus on the concept of "Partner Collaborating" Regardless of whether the concept of "Partner Collaborating" is connected to the emergent core variable, it does not take the position of core variable in Classic Ground Theory research methodology. The core variable will remain the core variable and secondary sub-core variables will remain secondary sub-core variables, and can never work interchangeably with each other. In this study, "Cultivating 195 Recognition" emerged as the core variable, and partner collaborating as the secondary sub-core variable. "Cultivating Recognition" is the “what” of "Partner Collaborating", and not so much the “how” of "Partner Collaborating". "Cultivating Recognition" is defined as "gaining public acknowledgement of achievement" for the purposeful pursuit of partner collaborating for both commissioning and implementing the project. According to this definition of "Cultivating Recognition", “Partner Collaborating” [both asymmetrical and reciprocal collaborating] could also be understood as “Strategic Collaborating” that ensures and sustains the commissioning and implementing of the project. The visible mwainn concern, as well as the means of "gaining public acknowledgemen tT of achievement", was "Legitimizing" by collaborating, "Referral Networkinpg" eand "Strategic Alliances”, but the other related six secondary sub core variablaes of "Cultivating Recognition" and their categories were no less important inf e xCplaining "Cultivating Recognition" and “how” "Cultivating Recognition" was oyr c ould be accomplished. it 6.3. Comparison wiethr osther Classic Grounded Theory Research in iRvelated Fields The Classic GrUounnded Theory studies within the area of Information Systems or business and management are few in number. It may be useful to start the essential literature review with a comparison of the majority of these studies. The focus of these studies is on special issues within business and management, while the theory of "Cultivating Recognition" focuses on general issues to do with Information Systems, management and business. 196 6.3.1. "Cultivated Relationship" as Core Variable In 1972, Odis Bigus carried out a study of a home delivery milk business (Bigus, 1972: 131-165). The title of this study, "The Milkman and His Customers: Cultivated Relationships", dates it. Today most milk is sold in supermarkets. Although the context of Bigus's study is the US over 40 years ago, it is concerned with understanding how people in a service environment use „Cultivating Techniques‟ for their own personal benefit. Bigus (ibid) argued that, for the balance of power to be one of high power asymmetry because of the low demand for then service and high supply of the commodity, different cultivating techniques shoouldw be employed. Bigus (ibid) describes this process as follows: e T "Cultivating techniques are employed with thea inptent of either directly or indirectly gaining a reward (usually monetary). Cultivfa teCd relationships are relationships which are carried out with the primary intent oof gaining such a reward...They are usually asymmetrical, with the less psowietryful party utilizing cultivating tactics to bring relationships closer to a statee orf symmetry" v However, Bigus (ibnid)i who did not use Classic Grounded theory (he used social Anthropological MUethodology), discovered the core variable to be “Cultivated Relationships" and that it processes through a number of stages or cycles. Bigus (1972:137-142) highlights three stages in the acquiring of new customers: 1) Detecting [canvassing amongst friends and associates] 2) Soliciting [personalizing and dealing] 197 3) Trust-inducing tactics [the sincerity act, contrived disclosure, situational mitigation, accentuated honesty and predicting credit worthiness] Bigus (1972: 142-145) reveals some more subtle ways in which trust can be further cultivated: Nurturing pseudo friending Effecting obligation Favouring wn Bigus (1972: 144-145) then goes on explain how it p roTveod to be a wise strategy to deliberately avoid certain types of customers bpy edecultivating relationships by means of: a C [1] Inhibiting conduct f y o [2] Terminating tactics sitr In the final section ofi Bvigeus‟s (1972:147) paper he observes that "High-expertise service occupationUs, pnarticularly the professions, seem to involve a lower amount of cultivating activity than low expertise occupations. Cultivating in such relationships seems to be directed mainly at trust maintenance". A critique or evaluation of Bigus‟s (1972) paper reveals: 1) The quality of his line of argument is compelling. 2) The development and synthesis of concepts are very clear 198 3) The analysis of his data is difficult to assess because he has not been very transparent with his data sources, but the discussion of his research is clear and convincing. 4) The conclusions of his research are very plausible and widely applicable 5) It has both content and construct validity 6) Its reliability is not possible to assess because he has not been totally transparent with his data wn 7) Its main strength is at the conceptual level To Within the theory of "Cultivating Recognition", Ep-leearning providers in this study specifically, were also in an inferior status anda position vis-a-vis their clients [the universities and the government sponsoors]f. CExpressed in Bigus (1972:136) terms, the twin "Coping Strategies" were "Lteygi timizing" and "Credentializing". Even though, in this study, in a "Cultivatinrgs Riecognition" situation specific factors were very different from those of iBvigues's research, respondents in both studies shared the need to cultivate relantionships. The people in Bigus's research had to cultivate relationships in oUrder to gain monetary reward. According to the theory of "Cultivating Recognition" in this study, e-learning providers had to "Cultivate Recognition” before they could obtain any monetary rewards. In both cases the process of cultivation took place. All the trust-inducing techniques for Cultivating Relationships that Bigus (1972) explains have their correspondence to "Credentializing" within the theory of "Cultivating Recognition". "Credentializing" involves the creation of trust by means of 199 “"Endorsementizing"”, resulting in the "Orienting" and "Prioritizing of Duties". Bigus (1972) describes one of the trust inducing techniques as the “sincerity act” ("Result Orienting"), “contrived disclosure” (transparency), “situational mitigation” ("endorsementizing"), and “accentuated honesty” ("Prioritizing Duties"). As noted briefly in previous paragraphs, this researcher would agree with Bigus (1972) concerning the importance of trust cultivation in professional relationships. However Bigus (1972) only indicates "WHAT” is likely to be of importance in the gaining of trust and not "HOW" that trust can be both gained and snustained. It could be argued that this study builds on and goes beyond Biguso (1w972) because it was able to demonstrate not only WHAT professionals have toT do to gain trust, but also HOW they are able to do this by means of "Cultivaptioen of Recognition". The study also shows how and why cultivation is just as Cimpaortant in high expertise occupations or enterprises [East African E-learning p roovfiders and their clients] as in low expertise occupations or enterprises, the miatiny difference being the greater emphasis on the maintenance of trust. The mainr sweakness of the Bigus (1972) research [which uses Social Anthropological iMveethodology] is that it was published before sufficient knowledge and unUdersntanding of CGT had emerged and thus all he was able to do was to create an insightful description and explanation of Cultivating Relationships without being able to state which, of all the variables he cited, was the core variable. This study was able to identify the core variable by facilitating the emergence of the "Cultivation of Recognition" core variable. 200 6.4. Comparing Related Literature to Concepts Within the Theory of "Cultivating Recognition" As outlined above, it is necessary to create a term for the pattern of "Cultivating Recognition". The study found no word in the English language to signify or represent this pattern even although this pattern of behaviour has always been there. This pattern is not restricted to kinds of behaviour that may be labelled under the same or similar heading. It may simply have implications for a more general theory that is not restricted to Information Systems or to business in genernal. The concept of "Cultivating Recognition" is based on the gaining of public aocknwowledgement. What follows is an eclectic collection of quotes or „sayings‟, Tby a random selection of people over time, to do with "Cultivating Recognitiopn"e which may clarify and reveal the latent understandings of the concept.. CAlmaost all these quotes conceive of gaining public "acknowledgement" and "orefco gnition" as something which has to be actively sought and earned, and asi tsyom ething to be valued highly. rs ive Un 201 We have come through a strange cycle in programming, starting with the creation of programming itself as a human activity. Executives with the tiniest smattering of knowledge assume that anyone can write a program, and only now are programmers beginning to win their battle for recognition as true professionals... Gerald Weinberg Appraisals are where you get together with your team leader and agree what an outstanding member of the team you are, how much your contribution has been valued, what massive potential you have and, in recognition of all this, would you mind having your salary halved… Theodore Roosevelt n The first step towards amendment is the recognition oof ewrror… Seneca. T A theatre receives recognition through its inietia tive, which is indispensable for first-rate performances… Franz Lisztz. p a Recogni C tion is the greatest motivoatofr …Gerard C. Eakedale People may take a job iftoyr more money, but they often leave it for more recognition… Bob Nelsrosn e Even the recongniitvion of an individual whom we see every day is only possible as the result Uof an abstract idea of him formed by generalization from his appearances in the past… James G. Frazer What every genuine philosopher (every genuine man, in fact) craves most is praise – although the philosophers generally call it „recognition‟… William James Table 18: Some Quotes to do with Recognition and Acknowledgement: for Illustrative Purposes (Source: BrainyQuote (2011) and QuotationsPage.com & Moncur (2011) 202 It can be stated with certainty that the concept and the meaning of the pattern of "Cultivating Recognition", as it has been defined and explained in this study, has not been applied before as a concept of any significance in any theory building process within Information Systems, Business, Management, Economics or Social Sciences in general. When one searches for this concept or for synonyms or key-words, or terms in titles, or under frequently used words in electronically available texts, it is not possible to find directly relatable terms or literature. The same applies to the set of two primary sub core variables and the set of six secondary sub core variables. This means that there is little or virtually nothing in the literatuwre tno which it can be directly or usefully compared. To This means that an indirect literature reviewa copmeparison has to be attempted. Such an indirect review can lead to indicationCs or explanations in terms of how this particular study can make a contribut ioon fto the literature on e-learning providers, CGTM, and "Cultivating Recognitiiotny". In the search for such literature in order to make comparisons, the searchr csriteria or key words used have been terms such as “Cultivating Recognition"i,v “geaining recognition”, and “public acknowledgement", or “public acknowledgUemnent creation”. A small body of literature within Information Systems, Business, Management and related fields has been found. Besides being sparse, this literature is characterized by the frequent use of the terms “acknowledgment” or “recognition”. The next section details the outcomes of the review. 203 6.4.1. Comparing Literature That May Have Relatedness due to Similarity in Conceptual Vocabulary A search for literature dealing with "Cultivating Recognition" using the keywords, “Cultivating recognition", "Gaining Recognition", and "Public Acknowledgement” or reverse wording, such as “Public Acknowledgement Creation”, yielded a few journal articles and a couple of books. This literature mostly uses terms such as “recognition” or “gaining recognition” or “public acknowledgement" as part of a cluster of auxiliary descriptive terms and not as part of a basnic substantive or theoretical concept. For example, within the study of entrepwreneurship, the term “Opportunity Recognition” has often been used for conte xtTuaol descriptive or focusing purposes and not as a pivotal concept in a theory p(e.eg SWOT analysis). In spite of the remote and occasion absence of concepCtuaal relatedness, a comparison will be attempted. of One Classic Grounded Theory ithteysis showed “Connected Learning” (Scott, 2007) as focussing on the maine crosncern of the recipients (receivers) of e-learning. Although Scott‟s (2007)i vthesis helped to clarify the main concerns of e-learning recipients), it neveUr bnroached the main concerns of those charged with delivering those services. Thus, unlike Scott‟s 2007 study, this study has revealed the main concern of the e-learning providers who were the respondents in the study. Another model pertaining to campus based learners is Tinto‟s (1993) model of institutional departure. The institutional departure study looked at how campus based learners struggle to gain knowledge. This study has gone beyond Tinto‟s (1993) work in looking at online and e-learning providers and challenges Tinto‟s (1993) contention of the centrality of the role itself of the online learning providers, and 204 explains that "Cultivation of Recognition" is of greater significance to online learning providers than simply fulfilling a role. This study has enriched Kember‟s (1999) model for student persistence, replacing it with this Classic Grounded Theory. Kember‟s (1999) model is based on Tinto‟s (1993) model but is criticised in this study for misunderstanding the role of e-learning providers in successful implementation of e-learning. Further Kember‟s (1999) claim to have conducted data analysis according to the grounded theory research method is disputed since the explanation offered falls short of the coherent explanation of the relationships between variables, a relationship which is an integral part of Classic Grounded Thweorny. Woodley et al. (2001) dispute Kember‟s (1999) model from a quantitative Tperospective. The professional literature on attrition and retentpione in e-learning is extended by a conceptual framework with which to under sCtanad the relationships between those variables which impact on online an do ef-learning providers. This study offers a framework with which to organise iftuyture research efforts. In distinguishing between the temporal nature of persisternsce and that of academic success it becomes clear that academic success isi vdeependent upon the success and strength of the providers. This study goes beUyonnd Simpson‟s (2004) notion of a „maximum possible increase in retention‟, in the case of learners withdrawing from a course because of a change in their personal commitment structures. It adds that retention could be facilitated from the providers' side and be due to a lack of "Cultivating Recognition". Lastly, in postulating that reducing the cost of integration and increasing the value of the learning opportunity will increase a learner‟s propensity to study, this study goes beyond Yorke‟s (2001) contention that improving conditions for students will increase 205 persistence rates, by arguing that "Cultivating Recognition" is of more significance to the success of online and e-learning projects than the upgrading of conditions. The most exciting contributions of the research of this thesis are those opportunities it provides to inform practice. Different aspects of the theory are of value and relevance to different stakeholders. Providers of connected learning will be the ones most interested in the concept of „Cultivating Recognition'. The development of e-learning programs depends on the providers, such as higher learning institutions and other stakeholders. The success of sucnh institutions will depend on how they cultivate recognition. Tow The Leitch (2006) report on skills called for institeuti ons of higher education to provide a flexible response to the needs of emploayeprs in the provision of demand led vocational learning. This study supports Lefit cCh‟s (2006) call for providers to change from a supply-driven approach to ya odemand-led approach to the provision of vocational learning. From the posinitt of view of the vocational learners of this study, the providers need to offer elearrning opportunities which are relevant and useful for the learners they aren sievrving and to design for persistence. In a fast changing, technology driven Uworld, and to the extent that the needs of employers and employees coincide, providers of connected learning will need to remain up to date and to be flexible in the sense of providing programs which are flexible for learners rather than for the providers. 6.4.1.1. Research on "Legitimizing" Only a few IS studies which involve and discuss legitimization have so far been carried out (Brown, 1995; Keable et al., 1998). While Elsbach & Sutton (1992) saw 206 "Legitimatizing" as focussing on organization objectives, artefacts, and activities, Klein and Hirschheim (1989) related legitimatization directly to IS success or failure and defined legitimization as "a social process by which institutions, practices and ideas gain social acceptance" (Klein & Hirschheim 1989: 7). All of these studies included discussion on how IS projects in organizations are unlikely to succeed unless they have gained legitimization from their users. According to Banville (1991) these authors have only mentioned legitimization as a general concept and have not systematically discussed legitimization strategies or types of legitimization. Brown (1998), and Kohl & Kettinger (2004) argue that little is known wabonut the process of legitimization-seeking in IS, and the strategies that can Thelop achieve the required legitimization from users are discussed by Flyn p& eZa lid (2003). This dearth of detailed studies on "Legitimizing" makes this astudy an important contributor to literature on "Legitimizing". of C Flynn & Hussain (2004) used sittruyct uration theory and activity theory to come up with a Legitimization Activity Mrsodel (LAM). LAM consists of a number of actions, each of which has a goail.v Fiegure 19 below shows the LAM and explains the process of gaining legitimizUationn. The LAM process involves various stages which include: constructing the target, identifying the learning process, closing the gap, learning the norms, granting legitimization, comparing targets and monitoring legitimization. Flyn & Du (2004) discussed the various activities involved in the process of seeking and maintaining legitimization. Figure 19 below shows three activities: gaining legitimization, evaluating and monitoring legitimization and maintaining and/or repairing legitimization. Oliver (1991) argues that IS managers can apply many tactics to gain legitimization for a new IS and many of these tactics fall into two 207 basic categories: conformity and manipulation. Conformity means that, when introducing a new IS, managers conform to the dictates of organizational stakeholders and, if necessary, and, according to Suchman (1995), manipulate only the characteristics of the IS necessary to achieve such conformity. With the manipulation approach, managers take a more active role in influencing organizational stakeholders and in creating new legitimating criteria. None of the authors outlined above is able provide an answer to the question: “How does the process of legitimization occur?" wn This is in stark contrast to the Classic GroundeTd oTheory of "Cultivating Recognition" which has emerged in this thesis. "Cultiveat ing Recognition" explains in detail how "Legitimizing" happens through a comabinpation of "Partner Collaborating", "Referral Networking" and "Strategic Allianc of in gC" ty ers i Univ 208 n Tow e Cap of Figure 21 : Letgyit imization Activity Model i (Sorusrce: Flynn & Hussain (2004)) ive Un 209 n w Figure 22 : Integrated Legitimation AcTtivoity Model (Source: Flynn & Hussaipn (e20 04)) a of C sit y r niv e U Figure 23 : "Legitimizing" According to "Cultivating Recognition" Theory" 210 6.4.1.2. Research on "Partner Collaborating" While public agency directors define collaboration as the act or process of “shared creation” or discovery which involves the creation of new value by doing something new or different (Gummersson, 2002a), Thomson (2001:23) defines it as: “... a process in which autonomous actors interact through formal and informal negotiation, jointly creating rules and structures governing their relationships and ways to act or decide on the issues that brought them together; it is a process involving shared norms and mutually beneficial intewracntion.” o This definition suggests a higher-order level of collec tivTe action than cooperation or coordination. The extensive literature on collabporeation does not agree on the terms included in the process, drawing as it doCes afrom a wide variety of perspectives, including inter-organizational relations: oAlfe xander (1995); Ring and Van de Ven (1994); Warren et al. (1975); Alter iatny d Hage (1993); O‟Toole (1997); O‟Toole, Meier, and Nicholson-Crotty (2005); rPsowell (1990), and the logic of collective action( Ostrom, 1990). Howeveri Tvheomas and Perry (2006) outlined the Process Framework of Collaboration (FiUgurne 24 below) 211 wn To ap e C y o f t rsi Figure 24iv : eA Process Framework of Collaboration Un (Source: Thomas and Perry (2006)) Thomas and Perry (2006) deliver an interesting context based descriptive framework although they are unable to explain how the process of partner collaborating actually happens. This is in contrast to the grounded theory of "Cultivating Recognition" in this thesis, which explains how the process of collaboration actually occurs, demonstrating how the process of collaboration occurs in both "Asymmetrical Collaborating" and "Reciprocal Collaborating" forms. 212 6.4.1.3. Research on "Strategic Alliancing" Effective strategic alliances can have important performance implications for higher learning institutions. Such strategic alliances require recognition that they are embedded in the strategies of each of the partners in the alliance. The success of the alliance increases when the symmetry in the strategic exploitation/exploration intent of the partners is present at the start and is re-calibrated and maintained over time (Koza & Lewin 2000). Koza & Lewin (2000) in a paper titled “Managing Partnewrshnips and Strategic Alliances: Raising the Odds of Success", outlined a fra mTewoork for considering the strategic decisions for entering into an alliance and soeme of the key issues involving the management process of alliances. In Figuarep 25 below, various reasons are shown for business entering into alliances. fS uCch reasons include gaining access to a restricted market, or overcoming barryier so to entry, gaining market power, maintaining market stability, acquiring news tietchnology products and/or new skills, pooling resources, reducing uncevrtaeintry, sharing risky research and development projects, speeding up entry innto inew markets, and deriving new incremental sources of revenue from combUining complementary assets (Hitt et al., 1997). 213 wn e T o ap f C Figure 25 : Reasons for S troategic Alliances by Market Type y [Ssoiutrce: Hitt et al. (1997)] er niv Koza & Lewin (2U000) argue for three types of alliances, see Figure 26 below. 214 wn Figure 26 : Three Types of StrategicT Aolliances [Source: Koza & Lewinp (2e00 0)] These alliances have as their primary st rCategaic intent the reduction in ignorance of the partners (Balakrishnan and Koz ao 1f993 and Dierickx and Koza 1991). Such alliances can reveal new informatiiotny and insights about (1) markets, including local competition, regulations, custormser tastes and habits, marketing infrastructure, and the like; (2) new core comivpeetencies such as just-in-time processes, negative working capital, one-on-oneU mnarketing, and mass customization, and (3) new technologies, such as competency innovations, new complementary technologies, as well as franchising capabilities such as the Pizza Hut brand. The critical success factor in alliances is the ability of the partners to design, manage and continuously adapt organizational processes and informal linkages which keep the alliance on track (Koza & Lewin 2000). Each of the strategic alliance types has different management characteristics. See Figure 27 below: 215 Figure 27 : Managerial Characteristics of Strategic Alliances [Source: Koza & Lewin (2000)] ow n e T Various Doz (1996) and Smith & Van de Vean p(1994) outline the stages in the alliance process (Figure 28). f Co sit y r niv e U Figure 28 : The Alliance Process [Source: Mackenzie & Callahan (1999)] 216 From the above explanations and graphic representations, one can see that creating recognition theory withstands and reveals the important concept of strategic alliancing. The grounded theory of creating recognition, described and discussed in this thesis, explains that strategic alliancing is part of the process of legitimizing the project. 6.4.1.4. Research on "Referral Networking" In the context of SME and internationalizing businesses, Dana (2001), using a multi-case descriptive study, analyses the role of networks win cnreating business opportunities. Networking among small companies and lTargoe businesses involving smaller businesses in networks, has apparently becoeme very important, especially given the increasing necessity of operating acaropss state borders (Dana, 2001). Within the theory of cultivating recognition, fn eCtworking is a property of the concept of Legitimizing, possibly a property of yso moe importance since a network may involve many different patterns, and seaicth of these patterns may offer very different potentials for the creation vaned srustaining of business opportunities. i In the 21st cenUturyn networking has played an important role in capturing more businesses and opportunities. Given the rapid growth of technology, for the business to remain competitive in the midst of change, networking has become more important. The increase in „knowledge workers‟ (i.e. those involved in „knowledge management‟) in turn increases the importance of networking among businesses. Rapid technological changes, and the increasing speed of change, have increased the pressure on businesses and providers to restructure networks, and for these networks to transcend globally. This could lead to some concrete operative solutions 217 to business problems instead of researchers and consultants delivering theoretical outcomes. 6.5. Comparison of the whole model of "Cultivating Recognition" So far, while any kind of literature comparison indicates no pressing need to modify the theory, some of the insight gained in this literature review may lead to some refinements of the theory. Subsequent comparisons will focus on the whole model of “Cultivating Recognition”. It will be ascertained whethewr unniversity curricula include the concept of “Cultivating Recognition”. This procesos may indicate whether the theory of "Cultivating Recognition" still withstaend s Ttheoretical and practical viability. Cap 6.5.1. Relevance to Universiotyf C urricula Given the methodology used, tihtey focus in this thesis has been on relevance in terms of substantive interesets ras seen from the perspective of e-learning providers working in East Africa: tihveir main concern and its recurrent solving. This view of relevance is in coUntranct to that which reflects a main concern and its recurrent solving amongst members of professional research communities as with pre-framed research. The suggestion of the e-learning providers that “Cultivating Recognition” is of “substantive interest”, although not necessarily “professional interest has not been taught or disseminated widely in universities. Although many core concepts, or „hard core‟ concepts, have been used in universities teaching and research, none of them seems to directly address the concept of "Cultivating Recognition". 218 6.6. Summary This chapter has engaged in a comparative literature review of cultivating recognition. In the course of this discussion four main sections were identified: comparative literature review objectives were exemplified; certain points of comparison with other Classic GT studies were identified; comparisons with other established theories of cultivating of recognition found in the literature were made. Finally, an attempt was made to demonstrate where this author‟s model of cultivating recognition is situated within the existing body of literature. Then final chapter will provide a more detailed evaluation of the contributions of othisw thesis to research, focusing on the seven knowledge claims. T ap e C y o f it ers Univ 219 Chapter 7 Critical Evaluation of Classic Grounded Theory Methodology: Researcher's Perspective Highlight of Challenges and Problems Faced during Research Although this chapter is short, it is one of the most important parts of this thesis. In three years of research this study has explored almost every imnportant angle of Classic Grounded Theory (CGT) and facing various challenogews and problems. It is obviously crucial to the validity of the process and finding s Tof the research to critically evaluate CGTM, since, as with all research methopdse, there are certain challenges and problems with CGT and its application in rCesea arch. In the course of the research the researcher encountered five main p rooblfematic issues which he considers himself to have resolved, and as a result tiot hyave made effective and productive use of CGT as a research methodology. Trhsis chapter will discuss the five problematic issues encountered in the coursiev oef the research, factors which could be seen to influence the „objectivity‟ anUd onutcomes of the research: the dominant use of the English language, loss of cultural nuances through inaccurate translation between languages, problems with the researcher‟s ability to suspend his preconceptions, heavy reliance on the quality of the researcher‟s own skills, the influence of the researcher‟s particular perspective on the process of searching in the comparative literature stage of the research and use of extremely dense and highly conceptual language. 220 7.1. The Dominant use of the English Language If a researcher‟s mother tongue is not English certain problems will inevitably arise which have to be addressed. Researchers who are native English speakers also face problems in trying to understand all the nuances of the CGT method as is evidenced by the number of “trouble shooting” CGT method seminars taking place around the world. Although since Glaser‟s (1978) „discovery‟ and development of CGT, it has increasingly become a research methodology of choice and can be seen as a remarkable achievement, his explanation of the theory assumens a sophisticated and comprehensive understanding of the theory equal to hiso owwn as well as a high level of competency in the English language. He seems Tto find difficulty explaining clearly and in detail every nuance of the CGT mepthoed since in his earlier work he describes and documents the research methoCd fra om his own perspective rather than from that of the novice researcher. Tohisf could be the reason he has published several later books which go intoi tgyrea ter detail and explain those aspects of the methodology which were not crlesar to his readers from his original texts. This makes it more possible for noni-vnaetive speakers of English to understand the theory and methodology. Un 7.2. Lost in Translation The second main issue is concerned with the loss of cultural nuances. Although it has been said that people share more similarities than differences, this researcher has found that differences in perspective often persist at the cultural level. Some of these cultural differences resist accurate translation. Throughout this research the Swahili language was used in all of the encounters with the 23 respondents. This 221 meant that the researcher had to be continually mindful when converting the respondents' comments from verbal Swahili (with the occasional English words) to written English in the memos. These difficulties were overcome to a large extent by the large number of repeated encounters with the same respondents. 7.3. The Researcher’s Limitations in the Suspension of his Own Preconceptions The CGT researcher may find him or herself carrying out research in an area of which s/he has limited knowledge and understanding and finds himn or herself having to carry out elaborate procedures to overcome this problem. oSowme researchers may find this very difficult or almost impossible to do. Thise re sTearcher made a conscious effort during the research process, as far as he waasp able and aware, to suspend his detailed knowledge of the use of IT in Eafs t CAfrican Higher learning institutions by formally acknowledging these issues a nod at the same time consciously keeping a professional distance from them. Tithye researcher found that use of the CGT method assisted in this process beceaursse in none of the initial encounters with respondents were there any agendna iivssues to do with the researcher's professional concerns. Instead the researUcher consciously encouraged the respondents to voice their own concerns rather than responding to those of the researcher. 7.4. Candidate Research Skills: Heavy Reliance on the Researcher’s Own Research Skills It is quite possible that two researchers faced with the same data when using the CGT method could come up with different explanations as to the main concern of the 222 respondents they have been researching. This can happen in a case where the CGT researcher has not been sufficiently well trained and mentored in the use of the methodology. The CGT research Method recognizes that the human condition is both complex and multivariate (Glaser, 1978). This means that, without being trained in CGT, a novice researcher could fail to note the emergence of the core variable and incorrectly elevate a sub core variable to core variable status. In order to avoid this in this thesis the researcher was guided by a fellow of the CGT institute who had already successfully supervised seven PhDs, all of which used the GT method. ow n 7.5. The Comparative Literature Phase e T The same concept can be assigned different laabpels by different CGT researchers. This is partly because CGT researchers afr oCund the world have different levels of English language competence. Wyh eon the CGT researcher is engaged in a comparative literature search s/shei thas to be careful to make sure that s/he goes beyond simple direct compaerisrons based only on vocabulary. This can place extra demands on the CGTn rievsearcher in terms of making sure that comparisons go beyond simple labeUls of concepts to penetrate and understand the meanings behind the concepts. In the course of the search process this researcher did not solely use „cultivating recognition‟ as the key word when searching the literature for previously published academic works in this area. In addition to „Cultivating Recognition‟ the following phrases were also widely used in the search process:  "Legitimizing"  "Credentializing" 223  "Cultivating Relationship"  "Strategic Alliancing"  "Referral Networking"  "Collaborating Partners" In addition to searching the above words and terms the researcher interrogated the literature for any of the words shown below and which form part of the explanations of "Cultivating Recognition": n ow "The recurrent creation and recreation of gai nTing acknowledgement of achievement in order to both commission and pimeplement projects" (Cultivating recognition definition from this thesis, (chaCptera 5) f 7.6. Use of Extremely Denyse oand Highly Conceptual Language sit Due to the use of extreemerv ly dense and highly conceptual language, the CGT researcher is likely to mnisi-interpret the emerging concepts. The researcher was able to cope with this bUy being mentored by Dr. Andy Lowe Fellow of Grounded Theory Institute. There are two main reasons why the writings by Dr Glaser about GT are both dense and complex. The first reason relates to Dr Glasers own academic training. The second reason is because any research method that seeks to go beyond the low level of narrative description will be necessarily not easy to explain. Following the first publication of Glaser & Struass(1967) Glaser realized that the methodology that they used to discover an awareness of dying was more important 224 than what the book explains. This was because he understood that the research method they employed was in fact another and more important discovery. The discovery of grounded theory had to be clearly communicated to the research community at large. Dr Glaser‟s first main attempt to deconstruct this methodology came in his title “Theoretical Sensitivity”. Although this is an important book about the CGT method it was written in a very succinct style. This was because part of Dr Glaser‟s academic training was in analytic statistics, a discipline known for rather complex explanations in a few words. As Glaser began to give CGT seminars all over the world he discovered that many of his readers were wverny confused about how to use the GT method. Since the publication of TheToreotical Sensitivity in 1978 Glaser has gone on to publish 10 more titles in aen attempt to ensure that the academic world will continue to use the GT methoad pcorrectly after he dies. His latest title which was published this year in 20f1 2C is called “Writing GT”. Glaser will probably continue to write throughoyut hois life to make sure that researchers who seriously want to use the GT mesthiotr d in an authentic way will understand what they have to do. ive Those experienUcedn in the use of the CGT method understand that it is insufficent merely to have an intellectual understanding of the principles of this method. This is because doing the CGT method is also experiential. An example of this is how the GT researcher learns to deal with the initial confusion in the early stages of the process. Most researchers will try to avoid confusion but the CGT researcher has actually to learn how to deal with confusion. If the researcher does not learn how to deal with confusion there is a danger that the researcher will force the data into logical patterns rather than let the latent patterns in the data emerge naturally. 225 Given these inherent difficulties in explaining how to use the CGT method it is not surprising that Dr Glaser, who is now in his 80s, still finds the time and energy to travel the world giving intensive CGT trouble shooting seminars. 7.7. Summary This chapter has detailed the various problems which can be encountered by the researcher using CGT, particularly if s/he is not thoroughly trained in the use of the Classic Grounded Theory and methodology, and the possibility these contain for distorting the research process and outcomes. Language, cultwuranl perspective and the researcher‟s preconceptions can influence both metohodology and results, particularly in encounters with respondents and in ethe Tprocess of a search and comparative review of the literature on CGT. Tahep researcher has described the various strategies he used to attempt as fafr aCs possible to resolve these problems. The next chapter discusses the contyrib uotion of this research to knowledge, learning outcomes and its implications fors fuitture research. v eri Un 226 wn e T o p f C a ty o i ive rs Un 227 Chapter 8 Contributions of the Research to Knowledge, Learning Outcomes and Implications for Future Research This chapter has six main sections. The chapter begins by discussing the contribution of the study to the knowledge. The second section explains how the core variable of cultivating recognition and the CGT analysis can adnvance e-learning in East Africa. The potential contribution of the research too e-wlearning practices in East Africa is discussed in section three. The fourteh s eTction highlights the main learning outcomes of this novice classic groundead ptheorist. The fifth section is self- critique; detailing things could be done bette rC in this study. Finally the sixth section highlights the implications for further res eoarfches. y 8.1. Contribution to krnsowitledge The main contributioni vmeade by this study to existing knowledge in the area of e- learning is the Uwany in which the Classic Grounded Theory of "Cultivating Recognition" was used in exploring and establishing the main concern of e-learning Providers working in East Africa. The researcher considers this to be a substantial contribution to knowledge in the substantive area of online and e-learning because the study revealed both how and why "Cultivating Recognition” is the main concern of those e-learning providers engaged in e-learning implementation. This Classic Grounded Theory is a credible overarching theory pertaining to the "Cultivating of Recognition" among e-learning providers. Whilst there is a wealth of 228 research focussing on e-learning recipients and campus based learners, there is considerably less research that has been and is being done which focuses specifically on the behaviour of e-learning providers. The researcher considers research done in this study to have gone some way towards bridging this gap. In chapter five of this thesis the process from the analysis of the raw data to the final emergence of the core variable, following the tenets of Classic Grounded Theory by Glaser & Strauss(1967) and Glaser (1978; 1992; 1996; 1998; 1999a; 1999b; 2001; 2003; 2005; 2006; 2008; 2009; 2011), was comprehennsively explained and documented. In that chapter the researcher demonstroatewd that all of Glaser‟s (1998:235-254) four criteria for evaluating an Class icT Grounded Theory -Fit, Workability, Relevance and Modifiability, - had bepene applied and followed in the research process. Ca f Glaser (1998) posed the questiony re goarding the relationship between “fit” and the conceptualising process and thes neictessity for ongoing comparison within the data: r “Fit is another woirvd efor validity. Does the concept adequately express the pattern in tUhe ndata which it purports to conceptualise? Fit is continually sharpened by constant comparisons" Glaser (1998:18). In these terms the study could be seen to have achieved "fit" gradually and through continual reflection and comparison, rather than by „forcing‟ a fit with the data. This study should be evaluated in terms of whether the concepts adequately express the data. In the researcher's view this Classic Grounded Theory study has been conducted with patience and care within the substantive area of e-learning providers working in East Africa. 229 Workability means do the concepts, and the way they are related to the hypotheses, sufficiently account for how the main concern of participants in a substantive area is continually resolved?” Glaser (1998:18) Throughout the thesis, the comprehensive way in which it organized and explained the literature has demonstrated the workability of this grounded theory. “Relevance makes the research important because it deals with the main concerns of the participants involved. To study something that interests no- one really, or just a few academics or funders, is probawblyn to focus on non- relevance or even trivia for the participants. RelevTanoce, like good concepts, evokes instant grab.” Glaser (1998:18). e p In the researcher's view this study hasC deaalt with the main concern of the participants involved. Both "Legitimizingo" afn d "Credentializing" continually arose as effective mechanisms for addressiintgy a nd resolving the main concern of "Cultivating Recognition". Prior to this resreasrch it was not well known that the absence of both "Legitimizing" and Credievnetializing" was a problem for e-learning providers in "Cultivating RecogUnitionn". This research has demonstrated that the absence of both legitimization and credentialization amongst e-learning providers can give rise to major stumbling blocks in the way of successful implementation of their e-learning projects. This is the main reason why the Classic Grounded Theory of "Cultivating Recognition" has major relevance to and value for e-learning providers in East Africa. “Modifiability is very significant. The theory is not being verified as in verification studies, and thus never right or wrong. ….it just gets modified by 230 new data to compare it to…. New data never provides a disproof, just an analytic challenge.” Glaser (1998:19). Because all of the tenets of Classic Grounded Theory were used in this thesis, the researcher believes that the use of Classic Grounded Theory of "Cultivating Recognition” has delivered a contribution to knowledge in the area of e-learning. The Classic Grounded Theory of the cultivation of recognition is sufficiently robust to incorporate new data, data that other researchers might discover in the future, to fine tune, refine and generate more modifications of the Classic Gronunded Theory of "Cultivating recognition". Tow 8.2. How the Core Variable [ Cultivatinpge R ecognition] and CGT analysis can Advance E-leaarning in East Africa f C This section will discuss two issuesy (1 )o How core variable [cultivating recognition] can advanced E-learning in East Africas aintd (2) How CGT analysis can advance E-learning in East Africa. The two issues aree dirscussed below. v 8.2.1. How the Conrei Variable [Cultivating Recognition] can advancedU E-learning in East Africa As noted earlier, various e-learning implementation efforts failed in East Africa. The emergence of Cultivating recognition will help avoid such failures. It will help to advance the implementation of e-learning in East Africa through creating collaborating partners, strategic alliances, etc. 231 8.2.2. How CGT Analysis can advanced E-learning in East Africa Firstly, CGT is a low tech and low cost research method (Glaser, 1978). This means in places such as East Africa, where economic resources for research are very limited, it has enormous potential to be used more widely. E-learning failures in East Africa, have caused lack of funding in this region (Ndume, et al 2008). As a result there is little done towards advancing e-learning research due to lack of funding. Use of CGT will help more researchers to embark on research. Although the GT research method involves a low level of costs prior investment in GT research seminars and workshops are a vital prerequisite before any future major GT research should take place in this region. Tnhis is because it is very difficult to understand the GT research by only referring to theo pwublished works of of its co-founder Dr Glaser. Dr Glaser's publications are very dense lyT written and they need to be interpreted by other experienced and skilled GT practiationperes. Secondly, the e-learning researchers in Efa sCt Africa have concentrated more on the technical part of e-learning technologies (L wooga et al 2007), forgetting the social concerns of the people involved. The CGT researicthy method is a powerful tool towards discovering the social concerns [main concernse] (rGslaser, 1978). As a result it is thought to be a potential tool towards filling the gap. niv Thirdly, CGTM hUas made e-learning qualitative inquiry legitimate. CGTM provides the means to conduct a systematic and detailed analysis the data, and thus gives researchers ample evidence to back up their claims. Considered particularly useful in this respect are the techniques of constant comparison and theoretical sampling, encouraging a constant interplay between data collection and analysis. Overall, the detailed guidance may provide a certain level of comfort that the data are being analysed in a systematic and rigorous manner - especially for novice researchers ( Myers, 2009; Fendt & Sachs, 2008) 232 8.3. Potential Contribution of the Research to E-learning Practices in East Africa There are three main reasons why this thesis has the potential to contribute towards e-learning implementation practices in East Africa. Firstly, the research is sought as a way forward for successful implementation of e-learning. E-learning providers can make use of cultivating recognition theory to advance e-learning practices in East Africa. Through this research, the e-learning providers are shown as able to create partners, collaborations, referral networks and cnredentialize their operations. ow Secondly, the research has activated the use of CeGT Tin research in East Africa. As noted in the previous section, CGT is low a caospt effective research method. This means that it will help East Africa to cfon dCuct make more research in various disciplines. ty o The third main reason why rthsisi research is of importance to the introduction of e- learning to East Africa is tvo edo with those who are part of the delivery system; the IT experts and the funderns oif the e-learning process. This thesis demonstrates that it is not sufficient for thUe IT professional just to have technical competence in e-learning implementation. It is of equal importance that that these professionals invest time and energy to understand the decision making processes involved by those with the power to authorize funding. They can do this by cultivating recognition. Even if the IT professional manages to cultivate recognition sufficiently to ensure the funding of e-learning projects it should be understood that if further CGT research is to be carried out by others more investment in CGT seminars is required. 233 In chapter 7 comments have been made of the complexities of the CGT method and the rather densely written books on the CGT method by Dr Glaser. Novices to using the CGT method are often confused. Doing the CGT method cannot ever be simply restricted to reading the research methodology books by Glaser. There are many nuances and experiences which can only be learnt by experience. This is why the introduction of a series of CGT trouble of seminars is an essential prerequisite to extend the use and understanding of the CGT method in East Africa. 8.4. The Main Learning Outcomes for this Novicen Classic Grounded Theorist ow The Classic Grounded Theory presented and usede in tThis study has been limited by the researcher's own lack of expertise as aa npovice classic grounded theorist. While this researcher has made every efforft toC present and apply a coherent Classic Grounded Theory approach in his resea roch, his inexperience has reduced the clarity and scope that a more expseriietnyced professional Classic Grounded Theory researcher might have beene arble to achieve with the same data. There were four key issues to which nthiev researcher, with hindsight, should have paid greater attention. U Firstly, prior to doing any formal classic grounded research, the researcher should have invested more time and energy in developing his own theoretical sensitivity. As a novice Classic Grounded Theory researcher he should not have begun to generate any data until he had reached a more comprehensive awareness and understanding of many more of the different types of theoretical coding families than he was able to do. 234 Secondly, while acknowledging that the novice classic grounded theorist needs to develop skills in theoretical memo writing in a short time, this novice classic grounded theory researcher found this very difficult to do because of his lack of exposure to the full range of theoretical coding possibilities prior to writing the memos. Memo writing is very tricky because the researcher has, within a short space of time, to be able to move from the substantive narrative contained in the raw data towards theoretical understanding of the data, without forcing the data. This transition from the context of the research to the discovery of deep-seated latent patterns of human behaviour is a very subtle one. If the researcwhenr tries to force the data, rather than allow the data to reveal the main conceTrno of the respondents, all that will be yielded is an elaborate context based desceript ion rather than an authentic transcendent classic grounded theory. Cap Thirdly, this novice classic grounded otheforist would have benefited immeasurably from participating in one of the “triotuyble shooting Classic GT seminars” run by the Grounded Theory Institute. Nrots having the financial budget to travel to the USA or Europe to do so could biev seaid to have slowed down the whole Classic Grounded Theory process. TUhe nbest example of this was that very early in the research all of the respondents in this study were complaining repeatedly about not being respected by either their professional clients or by government sponsors. If this novice researcher had been exposed to interaction with several other classic GT researchers at an international CGT research seminar it would not have taken him as long as it did to realize that the issue of “not being respected” was in fact a symptom of the respondents‟ failure to be able to cultivate recognition. Finally, the researcher has begun to understand that in research everything can be seen as 235 data, not only quantifiable statistics, and that even the most apparently trivial things have the potential to yield significant patterns and outcomes. 8.5. Self-critique: Things that Could be done better With the benefit of hindsight there are five key issues that would have impacted positively on this research. Firstly, I would have tried harder to obtain more financial resources so that I could have attended at least two of the international trouble shooting seminars for GT researchers. These GT seminars, underwritten by the Grounded Theory Institute, are held in the US, Europe and Asiaw atn least three times each year. They provide an invaluable opportunity to presTenot one‟s research to date to a critical audience within a supportive environment.e T he absence of participation definitely slowed down my understanding of the GaT process. C Secondly, I would have invested mooref time in developing my own theoretical sensitivity prior to having any respotnyde nt encounters. By having a well formed base of understanding of the manyr tsypies of latent patterns, before doing the research, would have quickened imvye ability to cut through the respondents‟ narratives to discover concepts withn greater ease. U Thirdly, if I had changed the research design so that that there were fewer respondents with whom I spent shorter and more frequent interactions I believe that my research outcomes would have evolved more efficiently. Now as a more experienced GT researcher I have become to understand what theoretical sampling really means. It is not about either coverage or representation. The CGT method is all about the discovery of theory by finding out the main concern of the population being researched. 236 Fourthly, the next time I do research involving the CGT method I will write many more theoretical memos. This is because without a large bank of detailed theoretical memos it is difficult to be able to both sort the memos and delimit what emerges. Finally, if possible I believe that if had been able to incorporate more participant observation in the research design even more insight would have emerged. The CGT researcher has to be flexible enough in the research design to incorporate as many research techniques as possible so that more opportunities for data generation are feasible. wn 8.6. Implications for Future Research To The study's substantive area of research was pthaet of e-learning providers and from the beginning the focus was on these pCrovaiders rather than on the e-learning receivers (e-learners) and other Univeorsfit y management. As was described in Chapter 3 the data came from variotuys s i ources including:  Face to face discussriosns with the online and e-learning providers  Discussions usiivnge email and  DiscussioUnsn and observations from e-learning providers' work However, in spite of its main focus, the theory does have relevance for other e- learning providers (e.g. University staff, management). The theory could be developed in several ways. 237 8.6.1. Aspects of the Classic Grounded Theory of "Cultivating Recognition" which have the Potential for Future Research Development More research is needed in both of the two sub core variables of cultivating recognition: "Legitimizing" and "Credentializing". The complex processes involved in "Legitimizing", as it has been described in this study, need further investigation so that people who need to be more skilled in this process can be formally trained. The processes of "Collaborating partners", both reciprocally and asymmetrically, in particular need to be better understood. This could be achiewvend by researchers doing a more extensive cutting edge analysis of new da tTa too find out how existing negative and ineffective asymmetrical collaboprateive relationships could be transformed into more positive reciprocal relationaships. Secondly, within the process of "Credentializing" more data and more fa nCalyses are needed in order to better understand the interactions betweeyn othe four elements of "Results Orienting", namely "Visualizing", "Profesrssionitalizing", "Focalizing" and "Role Delineating". Amongst these four mainv aespects of "Credentializing" this researcher believes that more research into then initricacies of "Visualizing" holds the most promising potential for further developmUent. This kind of research has the potential to make the process of visualizing accessible and of value to a wider range of constituencies other than those at present involved in the delivery of e-learning implementation in East Africa. This would also be of value to those tasked with making complex decisions whose outcomes are uncertain: they could benefit from honing and strengthening their visualizing skills. 238 The ultimate goal and ideal of any grounded theorist is to be able to discover a formal classic Grounded Theory which is completely transcendent of the time, location and context from which the data originates. “A formal Grounded Theory is a theory of a SGT [Substantive Grounded Theory] core category‟s general implications generated from, as wide as possible, other data and studies in the same substantive area and in other substantive areas.” Glaser (2006:34). 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Critique on Strauss & Corbin (1990) [ "Evolved" or " Straussian" ] GT Approach The Evolved GT Approach is the fruit of Strauss & Corbin‟s (1990, 1998) research and is an approach which extensively uses the paradigm model (Kelle, 2005) where the researcher starts with a research question, which is a statement about the phenomenon (Strauss & Corbin, 1990), and follows a procedure of increased prescription and formal elaboration of operationalw prnocedures (Locke, 2001), comprising an open, axial and selective, codingT reospectively (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, 1998) and coding-for-process (Urquhart eet al, 2010). There have been many debates on evolved theory, especially fraomp the co-originator of Grounded theory, Dr Barney Glaser. Glaser (1992) afr gCues that the use of a paradigm model produces forced „conceptual descryipt ion‟ rather than emergent categories and grounded theory, as in classic sGiTtM. As regards contextual conditions, Glaser & Holton (2004) argue that ceonrtext must emerge as a relevant category or as a theoretical code like anll oitvher categories in a classic GT research methodology. The intensive and rigid Uuse of a paradigm model promotes deductive as compared to the inductive reasoning of Classic grounded theory (Glaser, 1992). While evolved theory starts out with a pre-defined research question or problem, Glaser (1978, 1992) and Van Niekerk & Roode (2009) assert that in classic GTM the „researcher does not start with a research question. Similarly, coding procedures in evolved theory are different from those in Classic Grounded Theory. Glaser (1992) points out that going through such a procedure (i.e. increased prescription and formal elaboration of operational procedures) will result in over-conceptualization of data incidents. In 282 summary, the evolved GT approach developed by Corbin and Strauss (1990, 1998) in their book titled “Basics of Qualitative Research", according to Glaser is an erroneous approach when compared to the original GT for several reasons as detailed in the next paragraphs. The evolved GT approach developed by Corbin & Strauss (1990, 1998) is just another subsection of the QDA research approach which borrows the powerful jargon of the Classic GT method without applying the same academic rigour. The main problem with the evolved approach is that it has confused mnany researchers because the developers of this approach label this version of oQDwA as being GT. The evolved method approach is appropriate if used as a lo wT level descriptive analysis technique rather than an inductive approach for dipscoevering the respondent's main concern, as with the Classic GT method. a f C When the Corbin and Strauss (19y90 )o book came out, Dr Barney Glaser (1992) asked Strauss to either withdraws thite book or change its title because it was a gross misrepresentation of the Claessric GT research method (Glaser 1992). Strauss was old and ill at the time anndiv he declined to so. The evolved GT method is a legitimate research method bUut it should be called something other than GT because what Strauss and Corbin (1990) have described is a QDA approach. Whereas the Classic GT method is a general inductive research method designed to reveal deep seated latent patterns of human behavior and how their main concerns are being continually being resolved, the evolved GT approach is a sub set of the overall category of the QDA approach. The evolved GT approach method is not Classic GT as explained below: 283 Introduction of the "Axial Code" 1 The evolved GT Approach introduces a new step [which is nothing to do with the Classic GT method] which fits in between substantive and theoretical coding which they called "axial coding". Its purpose is to form a bridge between the descriptive or substantive phase of the process. Although it may seem logically appealing it lets the researcher off the hook intellectually because the researcher no longer needs to allow the latent patterns emerge. The use of "axial coding" by the resenarcher is to allow him/her to force the data instead of allowing the latoenwt patterns in the data to emerge. This approach is very similar toe th eT Qualitative Data Analysis approach because the researcher ais pencouraged to use deductive reasoning, whereas the Classifc CGT approach is a mainly inductive approach through theoretica lo sampling and the use of the constant comparison method untili dtayta saturation is reached. rs Forces the researcvheer to use deduction rather than induction i 2 One of tUhe nvery negative consequences of using the Evolved method is that it reduces the amount of uncertainty the researcher normally experiences when using the Classic GT method. Uncertainty is a necessary part of the Classic GT process. Although when the researcher does not force the data in the early stages of analysis and everything appears to be rather confusing, this confusion can be seen as the threshold of understanding of the latent patterns of human behaviour. The 284 use of the Evolved method has the effect of killing any possibility of serendipity or intuition occurring in the course of the research. No theoretical memos used to discover the respondent's main concern 3 The Evolved GT approach does not make great use of the theoretical memo because the axial coding replaces this function. Without any theoretical coding no main concern of the respondent wnill arise and how the respondent repeatedly seeks to resolves this iso newver discovered. The data is forced rather than allowed to eem Terge p 4 The product of the Evolved approaCch ias a descriptive narrative which has been forced from the data. Tohef main problem with this is that research using the Evolved approiatcyh will always be context specific. This means that the approach prrosduces findings based on contextual data rather the discovery of devepe seated latent patterns of human behaviour which are transcendennt oif time and place. This has very limited utility because it is an evideUntiary based narrative description rather than a transcendent explanation. The Evolved approach is unable to either reveal the main concern or the core variable 5 The Evolved method never reveals either the main concern of the respondent or the way in which this main concern is continually being resolved. In other words the evolved approach does not have a core 285 variable which has been induced from the data; instead it has an evidence based deductive findings which are context specific only. ow n e T ap of C y ers it Univ 286 A.2. Critique of Locke’s (2001) Book on the "Application of Grounded theory in Management Research" Locke (2001), in her book on the application of Grounded Theory in Management Research declares her intention “to reveal more fully the grounded theory approach in organization and management studies” (Locke 2001:33-91) This she attempts to do by elaborating on the Strauss & Corbin (1990) evolved version of GTM, explaining how different adaptations have been made to the procedures. She does not alert readers to the potential pitfalls of the research procedurens of GTM. While Locke (2001) explains many of the procedures of the methoodowlogy, she omits both the pivotal role of the core variable and the procedure of sTorting. In other words she does not explain or emphasise the relationship betwpeen the rationale for the choice of methodology and the actual use of a sCet aof research procedures that can adequately comply with this rationale. of Other researchers, such as sStriatuyss & Corbin (1990), besides Locke (2001), fail to adequately address or fuellyr explain Glaser‟s emphasis on the avoidance of any pre-framing or preconnceiiving of the research from the angle of any one particular theoretical perspecUtive. More recently Matavire and Brown (2011) appear to follow Locke (2001) in their failure to give any serious recognition to Glaser‟s clear position on the dangers of preconception and pre-framing. While Glaser (2005) argues that the Strauss and Corbin (1990) version of GT constitutes an entirely different methodology to the classic GT, Locke (2001:71) fails to appreciate that GT is both epistemologically and ontologically free. 287 It appears that one of Locke‟s missions is to pre-frame or pre-fix any prospective grounded theory research according to one particular theoretical and methodological perspective, namely the perspective of symbolic interactionism. Such a preconception from one particular theoretical perspective would contradict the rationale for employing CGTM, as originally conceived by Glaser in the 1960s, and maintained by Classic Grounded Theory researchers since. As Glaser carefully explains, symbolic interactionism is not the foundational theoretical perspective of GTM which cannot be claimed or labeled by any one specific theorentical perspective: "Grounded theory is a general inductive methodoolowgy possessed by no discipline or theoretical perspective or data type" (G Tlaser, 2005:141-160). e GTM labelling confusion is pervasive across maanpy disciplines. Glaser (1998) and Locke (2001) refer to two very different mfe tChodologies, both of which have been labeled “grounded theory”. Mills et ayl. (o2006) refer to CGTM and evolved GTM to make the distinction between "Gslaisterian" GTM and "Straussian" GTM, as a way of distinguishing between the tweor (Van Niekerk and Roode, 2009). iv Glaser (1998:3U2) gnives an account of how his acquaintance with the Chicago school of symbolic interaction through Anselm Strauss gave him “a chance to analyze qualitative data by applying my quantitative ideas to qualitative data”. This gave him the chance to learn once again that a human being is a meaning-making interpretive animal (Glaser, 1998). The process of fully comprehending Glaser‟s insight and its implications for research constitutes an important step for a researcher exposed and accustomed to exclusively quantitative research procedures, although this does not necessarily 288 imply exclusive adherence to the methodological and theoretical perspective of symbolic interactionism. Glaser (1998; 2001) posited the idea that the role played by symbolic interaction in grounded theory methodology is one concerned with consistency. While this leaves the way open for scholars to further contribute to grounded theory methodology, it is important to be clear that “grounded theory” is a label that has become attached to at least two, possibly many more, very different and distinct methodological approaches (Matavire and Brown, 2011). For the purposes of clarity and consistency it is necessary for an researcher using Grounded theory to: Tow  explain the original rationale for choosing aned u sing grounded theory and p  show how this research ration aCle ais consistent with the research procedures of the original app rooafch;  clearly explain the modiitfiys cations of this original rationale vis-à-vis the modified researche prrocedures and iv  show in Uwhnat particular ways these modifications constitute another and different research methodology. (Glaser 1978, 1998) 289 A.3. Cultivating Recognition and Associated Memo Diagram wn o pe T C a ty of i rs niv e U Figure 29 : Cultivating Recognition and Associated Memos Diagram 290 A.4. Scheduling Meetings with Respondents The meetings were scheduled with the respondents at least two weeks before meeting them to insure the respondent was free. Before the meetings commenced, an introduction to the process explained that the research aim and focus was to reveal, understand and explain the main issues which confronted these professionals in the execution of their role as IT experts in the implementation of on- line learning projects. The respondents were encouraged to let the researcher know if they felt uncomfortable about any line of enquiry. The absennce of any tape recording or note taking during these encounters helped to mwake the respondents feel more relaxed. This was able to transform the natur eT ofo these encounters from an interview to something akin to a more normal coenversation during which both interviewer and respondent were able to ask quesatiopns of each other. All encounters were kept deliberately brief so that the reseaCrcher was able to make detailed notes immediately after the conclusion of each mfee ting. In this was a series of encounters with respondents happened so that incr eomental progress was made. y The purpose of the meetingss iwtas to discover the respondent‟s main concerns about online learning includinrg challenges, interesting, how they solve and any achievements from their idvaiely working life. Several meetings with each respondent was vital because itn allowed the respondent to reflect between each of the encounters and enUabled the researcher to encourage the respondent to think more deeply about what were their real concerns By following this incremental process of having several interviews with each respondent it ensured that the respondents‟ agendas emerged rather than the agenda of the researcher. The choice of the locations was an important consideration. The idea was to try and ensure that the respondents felt the most relaxed. To achieve this a variety of locations, other than that of their own offices, 291 was chosen. These included restaurants, university canteens, meeting rooms, public bars, walking in the street and whilst driving in the car. wn To ap e of C y rsi t niv e U 292 A.5. Detailed List of Respondents With the Locations, Dates and Durations of Meeting RESPONDENT COUNTRY DATES LOCATION DURATION (AVERAGE) X1 Tanzania Thursday 24th office/Univers 30-45 September 2009, ity minutes Thursday 1st canteen/walkingn October 2009, 19th in street/meweting February 2010, 7th rooms o April 2010, 25th July T 2010 th ap e X2 Tanzania 25 SeptemCber office/Canteen/p 30-35 2009, 19th Feb ruary ublic bar minutes 2010, 6th A porilf 2010, 25th Julyy 2010 X Kenya 14th 3 rsi t October 2009, Meeting 30-40 e11th March 2010, room/Whilst minutes iv 16th n May 2010, 7th driving in car August 2010 X4 KenUya 15th October 2009, University 30 minutes 11th March 2010, canteen/restaura 16th May 2010, 6th nts August 2010 X5 Kenya 15th October 2009, office/meeting 30-40 16th May 2010 room/restaurant minutes X6 Kenya 16th October 2009, walking in 25-30 293 15th March 2010, street/office minutes 12th May 2010 X Uganda 14th 7 November :, 30-45 2009, 20th March Restaurant/office minutes 2010, 26th May 2010, 14th August 2010 X8 Uganda 14th November public 40-50 2009, 20th March bar/meeting n minutes 2010, 24th May 2010 room/office w X9 Uganda 15th November walking o in 37-40 2009, 21th March stree t/Toffice/whils minutes 2010, 25th May 2010a pt d eriving in car X10 Tanzania 25th September office/university 30-35 2009, 19th Fefb ruCary canteen minutes 2010, 9th April 2010 X11 Kenya 16th Oitcy o tober 2009, office/meeting 30-45 16rths May 2010 room minutes X Kenya e16th 12 v October 2009, restaurant/public 30-45 i 14th n March 2010, bar/office minutes U 17th May 2010, 8th August 2010 X13 Uganda 16th November meeting 30-45 2009, 22nd march room/walking in minutes 2010, 17th August street 2010 X14 Kenya 17th October 2009, whilst driving in 30-45 16th March 2010, car/restaurant minutes 294 11th May 2010 X th 15 Tanzania 17 September restaurant/office 20-40 2009, 23rd February minutes 2010, 7th April 2010, 26th July 2010, February 2011 X16 Tanzania 10th December canteen/ 30-45 2009, 17th February office/public bar minutes 2010, 10th April n 2010, 25th July 2010, w 17th February 2011 o X Tanzania 16th T 17 December reseta urant/meeti 30-45 2009, 24th February png room minutes 2010, 9th April 2010a, January 21, 20f1o 1C X18 Tanzania 16th December office/university 30-45 2009, ty10th April canteen minutes 20r1s0,i 26th July 2010 X19 Tanzania ve17th December walking in 30-45 ni 2009, 7th July 2010, street/office minutes U 25th July 2010, February 15, 2011 X20 Tanzania 17th December office/canteen 30-45 2009, 6th April 2010, minutes February, 16 2011 X21 Tanzania 18th December public bar/office 30-45 2009, 19th February minutes 2010, 23rd July 2010 295 X22 Kenya 17th October 2009, university 30-45 16th May 2010, 8th canteen minutes August 2010, January 7th, 2011 X23 Uganda 15th November office/restaurant 20-35 2009, 22nd March minutes 2010, 18th August 2010 X24 Uganda 15th November whilst driving nin 30-45 2009, 22nd March car/office w minutes 2010, 19th August 2010 e T o Cap y o f t ers i nivU 296 A.6. Sample of Data Collected The meetings generated a huge amount of data through taking notes from the 101 respondent encounters within 24 hours after having conversations. Here is just summarized sample of some of the raw data collected. As part of the process of the grounded theory [GT] method the researcher has immediately be aware of the type of data which the respondents are giving. From a GT perspective there are five types of possible data to be derived in any encounter with respondents:  Base line data – the respondent is being as truthfuwl ans possible  Interpreted data – the respondent is filtering ohis message to either Deliberately complicate or simplify his resepo nTses  Properlined data – the respondent adepliberately edits the data so that it is not in conflict with the “offifci aCl” line of argument from his employing authority o  Vague data – the resiptoyndent deliberately gives an indistinct version of reality to try and crosnfuse the researcher and throw him off the scent e  Zero datna i–v the respondent refuses to say anything at all to avoid sayinUg anything which he might later regret. From a GT perspective it does not matter which type or types of data the respondent delivers because each type of data has the potential to communicate things if value. Below are some of the questions which were used to stimulate conversations with the respondents. Although there was no formal schedule of questions with which to ask each respondent, is was necessary to create an environment where the respondent could freely talk about his main concerns. The questions asked below were designed to fulfil this objective. 297 Interviewee: X2 Q1. What is the most interesting thing about your job on e-learning/online education? Why? The most interesting is “new challenges” “unpredictable events/services/problems”. Most of the time there are so many challenges in online education or e-learning. Sometimes when you arrive in the morning, you find somebody asking for something which completely new and nnot documented anywhere. As an expert I need to solve it- this has been so chwallenging. You don‟t predict what tomorrow looks like. To Why? – because e-learning is new technologyp ine Tanzania, and most of this professors and lecturers they don‟t know exactly wahat is all about. f Co Q2. What is the most frustratingit tyhin g about your job? How did you solve when it happen? Give an example rs Lack of recognitioni vfreom the top management or lack of administrator understanding about ne-learning and what is all about. Due to lack of e-learning knowledge amongU administrator and top management it is very hard for them to approve budget and any type of purchase. For example today, I went to see finance manager to approve budget for payment of content developers, but the finance manager asked me what is e-learning, how do we benefit , it is seems not cost effective and sort of questions. It took almost days for him to approve the budget. Q3. Assume we are in perfect world, what single thing if changed will have impact in your job? 298 Immediately I will change the hiring procedures for those involved in e-learning. All top managers heading e-learning sections should have knowledge of computers or information technology and e-learning in general . This will help to implement e- learning. Currently hiring procedures are so poor, so long somebody is a professor in any field even if is in agriculture they will just recruit and be the director of one of the section. As soon as I change the hiring procedures then will help to implement e- learning. Q4. Imagine that your boss has asked you to change your job descriptions, what would you like to change? wn I will add the e-learning awareness and training part. TThaot means to be involved in creating awareness about e-learning among professeors and other people. This will actually help to make them aware of what is haapppening and the importance of e- learning. C Q5. For having been in this job for s oo mfany years, what is the most achievement you did and you are proud of abouti tey-learning? I am so proud of making res-learning be in the university map! It is now being implemented, and eventuallye now we have 3 courses online. And now the university and the country at whonlei uvnderstand what is happening and value e-learning. Type of Data: MUixed type of data 299 Interviewee: X7 Q1. What is the most interesting thing about your job? Why? Bringing knowledge to African students and professionals through ICTs. Helping Africa to enter the era of knowledge is the most interesting thing with distance education. It is interesting to me because of my passion for education. Bringing new programs, new technology and the interaction between Africann across linguistic barriers are some of the reasons I have stayed so loongw in this profession. Contributing to poverty reduction in providing skills to y oTung Africans so that they can get decent jobs and contribute to the social peceonomic development of their countries. a Q2. What is the most frustrating thing afb oCut your job? How did you solve when it happen? Give an example y o Technological nightmare: Wrhseint a live session is interrupted by either a power outage, or lack of insufficieent bandwidth, or site cannot get sound or see the powerpoint. iv The way to solvUe int is either cancel the class and reschedule it, or have the site watch the playbacks or help the site back and running by troubleshooting the problem Q3. Assume we are in perfect world, what single thing if changed will have impact in your job? Every learner would have his or her own computer and sufficient bandwidth to provide good Internet connection 300 Q4. Imagine that your asked to change your job descriptions, what would you like to change? Peace maker: I am interested in post conflict countries. How can e-learning provide peace and development in post conflict zones Q5. For having been in this job professional for so many years, what is the most achievement you did and you are proud of about e-learning? I can name few achievements: wn 1. The technological innovation brought by the AfricTan ovirtual university to its Partner institutions such as satellite broadcast, interne t delivery network such as WebCT, Interwise, Elluminate e ap Helping African students getting degrees fCrom renowned Universities and seeing the graduates entering the workforce in Aofrifca is one of the greatest achievements 2. African integration: bringingi t2y4 Universities from 17 countries in Senegal in 2008 for the ACEP (the Africarns virtual university Capacity Enhancement Program) Workshop ve 3. The African Virtunali UniversityTeacher Education Project with 10 countries has created unprecedeUnted successes with the creation on 73 modules developed by African experts, a creation of community of practice in distance education. Type of Data: Baseline (Truth) 301 Interviewee: X4 Q1. What is the most interesting thing about your job on e-learning/online education? Why? Availability of support anytime and anywhere. Also it serves money and time. Student study where they are, also I help them while anywhere- such as at home, at the office, in the bus, etc. I get to help my students with all they need anywhere and anythime, communicating with them too. Why?- because technologny allows things to be done anywhere at anytime. In additional it serves moonewy, time and risk of travelling T Q2. What is the most frustrating thing about youpr joeb? How did you solve when it happen? Give an example a Recognization, negative perceptions on fe -Clearning and poor altitude on e-learning or use of technology in teaching aynd olearning. There no recognization of online candidate compare with face to iftace candidate. Even online professional to be recognized with the society takress time. For example it took so my years for people to recognize my presence. ve Q3. Assume we aren ini perfect world, what single thing if changed will have impact in your job? U Awareness and understanding on e-learning. Q4. Imagine that your boss has asked you to change your job descriptions, what would you like to change? I will add sensitization and awareness duties Q5. For having been in this job for so many years, what is the most achievement you did and you are proud of about e-learning? 302 Managed to create centres in upcountry for student to get help and people to understanding what is e-learning. Type of Data: Mixed Type of Data From the sample of raw data generated from the respondent encounters the researcher then had to use the GT research method to transform from low level descriptive conversations to higher level conceptual explanations. On occasions the respondents would immediately offer conceptual explanations but nmore usually they would just tell the researcher about descriptive events in theior wwork. GT is designed to move the research beyond the narrative of the livees o fT respondents so that their deep seated main concerns can be revealead.p The jargon of how this is accomplished has been described below. ECssentially it involves moving from raw data to substantive coding and finally t oo thfeoretical coding until eventually the core variable or main concern of thei treyspondents is revealed. The transition from substantive to theoretical ecordsing is mainly achieved through the use of the theoretical memo. The irvesearcher starts with the respondent‟s narrative and then through a series ofU follnow up encounters with the respondents begins to reveal some of the concepts behind the narrative of people‟s lives. Once concepts start to emerge all subsequent encounters with respondents are probed to discover the veracity ideas for further clarification. This process is called theoretical sampling. Chapter 2 given a brief overview of how the GT process works. Unlike most research methods it is not a linear process. In other words sometimes back tracking is needed and it is also sometimes necessary to pursue new ideas which have 303 occurred by constantly comparing concepts which have arisen across a range of different memos. n Tow ap e of C ity ive rs Un 304 A.7. Overall Outcome of Data Analysis After all meetings, data was critically analysed and synthesized using Classic Grounded theory. From the 101 respondent encounters 20 main concepts were revealed. Below are the 20 theoretical memos which explain these concepts. Memos are the building blocks of GT. They should be regarded as the researcher‟s work in progress. A memo could be one line or several pages. Glaser (1978:83) calls them “Ideational notes” When memo writing the researcher can use a number of appronaches to analyze and synthesize the data. These include the following: ow Memo title and definition e T Substantive coding [descriptive] ap Theoretical coding [conceptual] of C Cutting point analysis helps to rietvyea l the dynamics of the revealed concepts Data fracture by discoveringr sthe memo properties Data synthesis by revievaleing the main categories of each concept n The researcherUs own conjecture Links to other memos 305 Memo 1-Transitioning Definitions (from data) The process of how university E-learning providers have been managing changes. During the implementation of IT projects, university professionals under went transitions. During such changes, they have mixed face to face learning as well as online learning to ensure successful transition. They did not change a whole range of courses to online, but incrementally from one course to annother, as soon as they see one course is successfully changed to online, thewn they start another course-this depends on availability of resources such as Tfunoding, collaboration and the rest. e The client perception of online courses haas mpuch lower status than that of traditional methods of delivery f C Definition (Conjecture): y o Transitioning helps to ensures thitat the online learning programme runs smoothly. IT university professionals eharve recognized the lack of physical infrastructure to expedite this process. Tov solve such problems they believe it is necessary to make the transition from facne tio face to online learning. They make these transitions in a systematic mannerU. The speed of transition is not only financial resource dependent. Collaborating with other universities is also vital. Such collaborations can range from equal partner collaboration [reciprocal collaboration] to collaboration with government departments [asymmetrical collaboration]. The popularity of courses is one of the key properties in a successful conversion from traditional learning to online learning. To ensure its sustainability a transition happens gradually. This is a possible explanation as to why no university is wholly online in East Africa. 306 Why Perpetual? Transitioning is happening all the time due to the fact that university professionals tend to keep looking for new ways to change as soon as the change has started. As soon as the change of one course has started, then they will keep looking how change more courses to online learning. This is one of the keys for sustainability. When does Transitioning become cyclical? The length and timing of each transition cycle is dependent onn the availability of financial resources from sponsors. The transition cycle occurs when an existing course loses funding and partner opportunities. It forces thoe wcycle to start again, making the transition cycle to continue. This has happen eTd in a few courses at the University of Dar es Salaam, especially the introducetion of WEBCT as the online learning platform. It was funded by DAAD. After tahepy lost such funding they stopped, but after securing other funding from Worldf BCank they started again, making it to be cyclical. o What are the triggers involvedit iyn transitioning? s The start of the transitioeninrg process is triggered by collaborating partners and availability of funding iovr recognition. Most E-learning providers started such initiatives when theUy snensed the availability of funds and collaborating partners. For example the partnership of UDSM and Nairobi Universities and other universities to form the African Virtual University-which is still blended learning. As soon as the funding or recognition stops, then courses tend to change or stop. Funding could be from the third part or from students- if more students get enrolled in the course. Transitioning facilitates the role of recognition in attracting more funding. 307 Properties of Transitioning  Partial not total change  Speed of change depends on availability of funds  Change needs collaborating parties  Change seems to be motivated by external recognition  All changes must be sustainable  Change seen as a driver to boost enrolment  Change without loss of control wn To Memo 2-Asymmetric collaborating pe Definition (From the Data): C a This concept explains how the weakoer fparty in a collaboration is able to obtain the collaborative benefits whilst skyilfu lly avoiding being dominated by the more powerful partner. In all collrasboirattions each partner will have slightly differing agendas. The weaker partneer is potentially always more vulnerable. v The more powerfunl piartner has an edge in ensuring the project is implemented. An example of anU asymmetric collaboration is when the university is collaborating with the government. The government is always more powerful than the university. In asymmetric collaborations the weak partners skilfully manages to extract resources and finances from the dominant party without being overwhelmed. The IT professionals attempt to transform the asymmetric collaboration to a reciprocal relationship wherever possible. Reciprocal collaboration is the processes whereby all parties have equal power over making decisions and managing the project. 308 Researcher’s conjecture: Asymmetric collaborating is the type of collaboration which is likely to have both passive and active characteristics. Whether active or passive, asymmetric collaboration is likely to be cyclical. Why Cyclical? Asymmetric collaborating is likely to have cyclical characteristics because once a project is completed a new project starts. n When could asymmetrical collaborating be spasmodico owr perpetual? After a relationship has been established it is ceon ceTivable that problems will occur and they will have to be managed if the replationship is to endure. In such situations it is reasonable to expect asymmetrCic caollaboration to be spasmodic. Even in harmonious relationships coonflfic ts of interest or agenda priorities could differ. To avoid and deal with thestey is sues it is also quite feasible that asymmetric collaborating will also have to bes peirpetual. What are the triggevrse rwhich make Asymmetric collaborating become cyclical? ni When the needU for change arises on converting direct learning to online learning, becomes the triggering force of asymmetric collaborating. The change is facilitated by the lack of physical infrastructure and resources in the direct learning or face to face learning. During the implementation of such projects, need for more partners will trigger collaboration within the project. Other factors facilitate the refining of such collaboration is the rapid change of technology, funding and availability of online experts. Every time there is a change, such factors will lead to the start of a new collaboration or agreement or refining of the current collaborations, in order to 309 renovate the project. As soon as the junior partner is able to stand on their own, the IT professional tends to start a project running in parallel with the partnering projects. Properties of Asymmetrical Collaborating  Being recognized and increased credibility  Increased and known intellectual property over ownership  New Operation expansion  Quality control and assurance  Project sustainability and growth n  Attracting more donors and funding ow pe T Memo 3-Focalising Ca Definition (From Data) of Focalising is the process of sstaiytin yg attentive or alert to the IT professional‟s main concerns. Online professionalsr tends to concentrate on the main concern until it is solved. For example theiyv teend to work in one course to convert it to online learning before they go to the onther. In other hand, E-learning providers tend to focus on their main responsibilitieUs to ensure success and be recognized for promotions. When they concentrate on their main responsibilities, they tend to do it better and have acceptable solutions for the respective problem. By focalising, the E-learning providers tend to help themselves to synchronize the online learning with the direct learning. Keeping Focussed helps them to ensure quality and control over the intellectual property, as well as making their professional work recognized. For example one of the IT professional concentrated solely on his responsibility to ensure they recognized him for the good work. In a few months, they promoted him 310 to the next salary level. When they focus on one course, as soon it takes off, they move to another new course. Definition (from Conjecture): Focalising is also the tendency to concentrate on the main responsibility, to ensure the project has been done well. To institutionalize the online programs, the E- learning providers tend to focus on course for conversions from directly learning to blended learning-partial online learning. This helps to have efficiency and effectiveness. After implementing one course and it is fully runninng and has gained recognition, then E-learning providers tend to go to the next cwourse. They do this incrementally. For example, when University of Dar es S Talaoam wanted to establish online programs, they first concentrated on only coemputer courses, because the belief of clients was computer courses can be stuadiped online, and they concentrated only on Bachelor courses not Masters progCrams, because also clients believed Master programs cannot be online- focufs ing helped them to officially start the programs successfully. Another exaymp loe, is when the officials tended to focus on their professionals to safeguard thietir recognition. To be able to focus , they follow phase by phase approach . Forr esxample, The African Virtual university implemented its program phase by phavsee - phase one was for East African countries, phase two was the whole of Africna. Ei ven securing partners, the African Virtual University used a phase by phase Uapproach. Collaborating is the great area of focus for many universities in East Africa. Why is it cyclical? Focalising is a cyclical dynamic it begins and starts again and again. For example, when the University of Dar es Salaam started a course, after implementing it they started the other and the other and the other while also focusing on the renovation of other running courses due to the change of technology. In few cases 311 the process is perpetual. This happens when several courses are happening in parallel. What triggers focalising? The rise of need or opportunity to expand enrolment in a program, becomes the start of focalizing. For example, when a funding door opens, the university will urgently focalize to capture it. Such moment capture opportunities could be the availability of funding, change of technology, more clients, availability of partners and networks. The focalizing will help to increase recognition of the uninversity. When the project has been executed, focalizing ceases, but will restarwt with the next new project. The change of technology will trigger the chang eT of ofocus and vision of the project. For example when the operating systems chanege the university would like to change to new operating systems. The first step ais pto change the focus to be able to implement the change. Not only it end whenC the project is implemented, but also when it fails to continue due to lack of resoufr ces. o Properties of Focalizing y  More opportunitierss ariet captured  More projectvs reunning with strong partners  Enrolmennt iincreases  BetteUr quality programs  Rapid change of Technology  Increased synchronizations with other projects  Increase recognition and support 312 Memo 4-Pump Priming Definition (From Data) The intelligent use of modest resources in order to create exponential benefits, to ensure credibility of online learning, more momentum and support from third parties. Most IT projects need endorsements to gain credibility. Without credibility and without endorsements from recognized parties the funding of IT pronjects is very hard. Regardless of how good a project, without credibility or endorwsements from highly respected authorities, the project will not be commissioned. Poump priming increases the recognition of the project. Also the E-learnineg pTroviders becomes more recognized for promotion. For example, the e-plearning centre project at the University of Dar es Salaam, for it to gain poCpularity, was endorsed by the Minister and The World Bank. After such credibility,f i t secured much money from DAAD and other international organizations. y o Definition (From Conjectures) tr i Pump priming is the pvroecess of making IT projects recognized and funded by other external donors nanid funders. As soon as the project gets such credibility, they attract more partUners. For example the African Virtual University-after being endorsed by Minister of Education in Kenya, attracted partners from other African countries as well as World Bank for funding. Pump priming also helps to increase synchronization of the project for its sustainability and growth, allowing donors to give more money. 313 Why Perpetual? Pump priming is perpetual because most IT projects benefit from the leverage which pump priming brings. To attract more partners and clients needs endorsement from the trusted partners. It happens all the time. In few cases it happens cyclically. That means as soon one endorsement goes, the university needs to look for the other, making it to be a continuous cyclic process. What triggers pump priming? Universities are always short of funds yet the demand on thwesne funds is always growing, making it to be the start of Pump Priming to enTabole the start of the new project(s). At any initiation of a project, universities tend to need funds to ensure the sustainability of the project, activating the universitieps teo start looking for funds before the implementation of the project, during thae implementation of the project. Endorsements also facilitate the start of thfe pCroject, hence activating pump priming. Pump priming will end as soon as the p rooject ends and needs no more funding. Properties of Pump priming ity  Project Credibielityr asnd acceptability  Project recoivgnition  FundUing nsecuring  Project endorsement  Project Credentials 314 Memo 5- Reciprocal Collaborating Definition (From the Data) Two parties come together to obtain agreed objectives by contributing different and unique skills and investments. The parties tend to share equally the right of ownership of IT projects. It is mutually beneficial between the parties or done in return. No part is under the other part and they have equal status and power to manage the project. To ensure there is equal status and power, E-learning providers have been designing and signing various agreement and memorandum of understanding. All parties do sign such agreement to enter into wthe ncollaborating. For example, during establishment of African virtual university, aftoer the project had been endorsed by the Minister of Education, every partner wTas supposed to sign an agreement to ensure mutual benefits for all ap e f C From Conjecture: o Reciprocal collaboration is thse pitroycess of mutual benefit for the parties in sharing powers and status. All partiees rentering in such collaborations, have same or equal power and status. There ivs no one above the other. If one partner will be above the other, then the collanboirating will be asymmetrical collaborating and no longer reciprocal collaboraUtion. The asymmetrical collaborations happen when one partner has got more resources than the other. For example, when the Open University of Tanzania collaborated with the Coventry university (UK), the UK partner was more powerful than Open University of Tanzania, due to having enough resources, and such collaboration was no long reciprocal collaboration. As soon as the weaker partner gains more power, it tends to change the type of collaboration. 315 Why Reciprocal Collaborating is Spasmodic? The reciprocal collaborating for the same project, happens once, and ends when the project ends. The collaboration tends to be for securing funds, strengthening the programs and recognition. As soon as such goals are achieved, the process ends there. However it tends to build new collaborations in other areas. What triggers reciprocal collaborating to begin and end? n Due to rapid change of technology, increased numberw of students attend universities and there is pressure from government to eTnrool as many students as possible. It causes one partner to look for other partneers. For example, the University of Dar es Salaam was supposed to increaasep enrolment, but the physical infrastructure was not enough, and the only wCay was to go for technology use, but due to lack of funding they decided too lfook for partners in various countries to collaborate. The lack of qualified stafyf o r expertise also triggers the university to look for partners, so that they can start isttaff exchange programs to develop the staff and have enough expertise. Anothrers case, is when the university would like to apply for funding. The funding criteivriae is for the university to have collaborating partners, then the university will neend to look for collaborators. The end of the project, will trigger the end of reciprocUal collaborating. Properties of Reciprocal Collaborating  Referral networks creation  Degree of mutual benefits 316 Memo 6- Visualizing Definition (From Data) The process of having the clarity and understanding of what the final outcome of the project will realistically be. The E-learning providers need to have a vision to sustain IT projects within their universities. The success of the projects depends on creative thinking. E-learning providers tend to see the success of the project positively. Most universities set visions before a lunch of the projects, but also E- learning providers tend to concentrate on their visions to implemennt online learning programs. They tend to have vision on what their career is wall about, to ensure maximum implementation of online programs. For exaomple, Dar University professionals, for them to be able to get what they t hTought will work, such as implementation of online programs, they crated stroneg vision and positive thinking. They do this to overcome the negative attitude aof pclients and the project students, who have very negative attitudes on the usef oCf technology for learning. ty o Definition (From Conjecturres) i Visualizing is a proceisvs eof clearly visualising the successful outcomes of project planning, implementantion prior to the commencement of the project. Online professionals do thUat to ensure they have positive thinking towards the project, and to encourage themselves to overcome the negative perceptions on the use of technology for learning. Also they visualize helping to synchronize the project development with the other projects within the university. Due to the fact that most people have negative attitude to technology being used for learning, professionals tend to strengthen their visions. For example, one of the IT professional said “only through having strong visions, is when you can gain recognition and support from donors and top management”. 317 Why Visualizing is cyclical? Visualizing is a continuous process, which repeats after a certain interval of time. It repeats when there is a change of sustainability factors. The cycle of visualizing ensures the sustainability of the project. Some of the factors which facilitate the cycle of visualizing include change of technology, change of management, change of project timeline and funding opportunities. The universities have been refining the visions of their projects over certain intervals, to ensure the project success. It helps to manage funds, gain trust, partners, increase recognition and crednibility. What triggers the beginning and end of Visualizing? ow The frequently of cycles of visualizing appear to be s timTulated by the absence of trust and credibility. The greater degree of trust and ceredibility in the project and its leader the less frequent the visualization cycle beacopmes. C Properties of Visualizing f  Degree of attitude andt pyer coeption  Degree of Trust ansd ciredibility  Project synchroenirzing  Referral nbuiilvding and sustaining  CreatUing more trust and recognition 318 Memo 7- Positive Affirmationing Definition (From Data) A process of having positive confirmation and verification on online learning, it is a change from negative thinking to positive thinking. Most communities in East Africa have negative thinking about learning using technology, that is online learning. To overcome such thoughts, the E-learning providers remain positive and keep doing what is thought to be good for the benefit of using technologyn in learning and training. For example, various universities in Tanzania when swtarting implementing online programs, encounters resistance, and anybody woho was taking such programs was viewed negatively and lowering the qual ityT of certificates from such learning, but professionals kept doing it, and now thee community view it positively and more people are enrolled in the programs.a Ep-learning providers tend to have positive thinking on how they are perceived byC top management on their work- when they get no promotion as other type of proffe ssionals, and eventually at the end they get promotions too. Professionals m aonage to keep this through creating self- confidence, and maintain it throiutgyh creating networks, referrals, collaborations, endorsementizing and syncherorniszing what they do with direct learning. Definition (From Cnonivjecture) The process oUf overcoming the negative attitude or perceptions about online learning. While the clients think it is not possible to learn online, the E-learning providers remain positive while finding ways to change attitudes. Also when the top management view E-learning providers negatively, these staff tend to have positive thinking while implementing the projects. One of the methods they use is the creation of referral networks, and trusted collaboration partners, as well as endorsement from well recognized bodies. In order for the online professionals to work they need to have positive affirmation. For example one IT professional mentioned that initially no 319 body was happy with what they were doing, only because they don‟t trust technology to help in learning, the professional kept positively towards this and finally people were happy Why is it perpetual? Positive Affirmationing happens all the time, in anything the professional does they need to have positive thinking to succeed. If they need to be accepted by the community, they need to have this characteristic all the time. In a few cases it can be spasmodic-but this depends on the nature of the project. wn What triggers Positive Affirmationing? To The confirmation on the project planning, implemeenta tion and sustaining always becomes the force for positive Affirmationing. Aas psoon the idea about the project pops up, it triggers the start of Affirmationi nCg. As soon the project is successfully being implemented it will be the end of tohef positive Affirmationing on that respective project, but the start of a new ideay b ased on the success of the project,. Trust created, credibility of the comiptleted project and network created. Positive Affirmationing happens througrhsout the project regardless of if there is failure or success. e Univ Properties of Positive Affirmation  Not knowing what will happen  Network creation  Learning collaborations  Dual thinking on results(worries) 320 Memo 8-Side Stepping Definition (From Data) Side stepping is a conflict avoidance strategy. Misunderstandings are due to the lack of trust from top management, to include any ideas from IT professional towards development of a project. When there is little trust from the top management, the IT professional tends to be isolated from the project, as a way to keep aside and avoid conflict. E-learning providers uses side stepping as a solution technique to conflicts. For example, IT professionals who had been told to suggest wwhant online platform could be used for implementing online learning, after osome research finally suggested a priority order- which one is the best and wThich one is poor. At the implementation stage, the top management dpid en ot follow what this staff recommended and used a completely different platform. When the staff tried to follow up what happened was no reply from thCe toap management. As a result he side stepped- to leave the top management doo fw hat they wanted. The only way he could create peace in his heart was to stteyp out from the game and wait and see. After a few months, the program collapssedi and that was the recognition of that staff. Definition (From Convjeceturre) When misunderstanndiings happen conflict avoidance strategy comes in to play. To begin with, bUoth parties have to re-evaluate the situation. This is done especially when there is misunderstanding with top managers or supervisors. Most of the time when the top management does not consider the IT staffs opinions and ideas towards the implementation of the project. It is a solutioning technique, to create recognition. With staff side stepping, they don‟t involve themsleves in the matter for some time until they are re-welcomed 321 Why is it Spasmodic? It happens once in a while. Side stepping does not happen all the time. The misunderstands between the staff and top management to involve their ideas in decision making happens once in a while. No case occurred when it happened all the time or cyclically What triggers side stepping? n The side stepping is caused by conflicts and misundeorstwanding between top managers and E-learning providers. When there is conflictT, E-learning providers tend to step aside. Such misunderstandings are related toe t op management not taking into consideration the suggestions from the IaT pprofessional or recognizing the opinion and ideas for the implementation of the project from the staff. It ends when the misunderstanding has been solved aondf tChe top management clears the conflict and trust ideas from the staff. ty rsi Properties of Side sitevpeping  Lack of pnrofessional recognition  No InUvolvement in decision making  Lack of trust from top management  Transition change 322 Memo 9- Hiatus Management Definition (From Data) When there is a break in the continuity and harmonious relationships, feelings of uncertainty or an hiatus is caused. Since an hiatus has the potential to escalate into conflict, hiatus strategies are needed to manage the situation. Online staff have a difficult time when they have side stepped a problem. This makes them very vulnerable and could possibly result in them losing their job. Some of these staff leave their jobs, seek new jobs or even become ill from the negantive pressures of this situation. During this period they tend to manage worrieos,w and fears by looking for new employment opportunities. For example, the DTirector of Online course development at the University of Dar es Salaam, afteer th e top management did not take into consideration his suggestion on which poprtal would be more effective for online courses, stepped down. In ord eCr toa manage hiatus he reverted to concentrating on his main contractual roespfonsibilities[of university lecturer] so that his employers could not use the excuse of poor lecturing performance as grounds for dismissal. At the same time he iatlsyo vigorously applied for several new positions with other employers. Thee rcsombination of re-focussing on the legal contractual obligations of his lecturiinvg job, and also searching the job market helped the IT professional to recaptunre his confidence. From ConjectuUre: When top management does not take into consideration suggestions from the IT professional, discontent and alienation will arise. At the time when they don‟t involve E-learning providers in these issues they tend to switch their focus from their main duties and start looking for new careers. They tend to concentrate on furthering their professional careers rather than carry out duties they do not agree with. 323 Why is this process Spasmodic? Hiatus Managing does not occur in all phases of a project. Some phases of a project are more vulnerable than others. What triggers Hiatus Management? The rise of misunderstanding or conflict within the project caused by the different agendas of each party will frequently trigger the hiatus management. Hiatus management will start when IT professionals side step to allow other people do what they want to do, after excluding ideas and suggestion from the pronfessional. It ends when the management re-welcomes the staff to input idea w Ts ion to the implementation of the project. ap e Properties of Hiatus Management f C  New opportunity searching  Career recognition anidt y o protections  Involving E-leaernirnsg providers in decisions making Univ 324 Memo 10- Strategic Alliancing Definition (From Data) This is a medium to long term process of connecting with other parties in order to secure the completion of a project with mutually beneficial outcomes. It is a process of working together for the purpose of delivery of online courses or securing funding. Most universities in East Africa tend to alliance to increase program delivery, recognition, quality, and funding opportunities. Most funders tend to ask for alliances to fund the project. Such alliances can be done through exchawngen of programs and staff. For example, the University of Dar es Salaam have ostrategic alliances with African Virtual University in exchange of programs and dTelivery. They joined hand together for the purpose of ensuring they capture meor p e funding from donors and funders. For example they managed to get funds from World Bank after having such strategic alliancing. The alliancing instCitutiaons have reciprocal alliancing characteristics in that they have similar poowf er and status in the management of the project. They tend to sign agreementtys t o ensure smooth delivery of the program. For example University of Dar es Saslaaim signed agreements with UNISA for the delivery of various programs. er Definition (From Cnonivjecture) The process ofU matching the strategic objectives of one institutions to the other and when it matches, then they form such alliances to ensure all benefit from the alliance. This is the strategic nature of the alliance. Each institution has its own strategy of establishing online programs. When this matches with another institution, and both are interested to share, then they form such alliances. The alliance is to help both institutions grow and have sustainable programs. It helps in securing credibility, popularity and recognition. 325 Why is it cyclical? Strategic Alliancing usually happens prior to the commencement of a project What triggers strategic alliancing? Strategic alliancing is triggered by the wish to reduce uncertainty and risk. The greater the uncertainty and risk of the online learning project, the greater need for Strategic Alliancing. Properties of Strategic alliancing n  Program exchange delivery ow  Increasing collaboration and funding T  Increased recognition beyond the bordperse a of C rsi ty ive Un 326 Memo 11- Referral Networking (RN) Definition (From Data) The process of creating contacts and networks for the purpose of endorsing online learning projects increases their credibility. It is done to capture more opportunities in terms of funding, collaboration, and popularity of the online programs. The clients and students tend to believe in networking-as soon they see more networks for the same project, they tend to join the program neasily. One of the pre-qualifications to get funding from possible big donors wis to have referral networks. For example African Virtual University used referoral networks to capture World Bank funding them and expand its operations in A frTica. Such networks should be strong and well known in their host country. pE-elearning providers have been working to capture and build referral networkinga to ensure all get recognized, and capture more funding f C Definition (From Conjecture) y o Referral networking is the spriotcess of getting more connections to help in planning, implementing ande mraintaining the project. This involves getting funds and recognition by client and idvonors. They do this to ensure the project is sustainable Why is it perpeUtuanl? It is happening all the time; the E-learning providers have been looking for the networks all the time to ensure the project is sustainable. They look more and more networks. What triggers referral networking? The need for RN is increased when the party seeking resources or influence is short of credibility and experience. The process of RN is dynamic and changes as 327 credibility and influence increases and diminishes. A RN may begin with the weaker party, being vulnerable, but at later stages as more competence is demonstrated the receiver of credibility and influence can become the giver of resources and influence. It is not always a one way process. Properties of Referral Networks  Creating more connections  Sustainable collaborations  Successful project implementation n  Attraction of more funds w e T o ap f C ity o ersiv Un 328 Memo 12 - Credentializing Definition (From Data) Credentializing is the creation of increased credibility by the skilful use of professional qualifications, experiences and accumulated social credit to lower the perceived risk. Online learning staff have been using this technique to ensure that their clients believe that they are fully able to deliver projects on time and to the desired quality. The E-learning providers must first believe in themselves. If they have self-confidence that they are able to deliver and they shnow that they are qualified experts in their profession, they are more likely to obew approved of by their clients. This involves showing that they are knowledgeab leT to solve online problems. That is why they do one course at time. The moset important characteristic for credentializing is high self confidence in their adepcision making. For example, a coordinator of online programs at the Un ivCersity of Dar es Salaam, used this technique to increase trust with his top mfanager. His top managers were not E- learning providers, but had degrees in o toher fields, and they did not believe a person would be able to learn online. Hesnicte y to ensure they trusted him he was had to show them that he was knowledgeearble in the field of online learning and implemented the program through the help of strategic alliances, referral networks, collaborations with other people and endonrseivments. Definition (FroUm Conjecture) The process of proving capability, knowledgeability and power to make things work effectively. To show that you have the right education for the right task. Most E- learning providers have been using this technique to ensure they survive and implement the online programs successfully. 329 Why is it Perpetual? It is happening all the time. The E-learning providers need to prove to clients, communities and donors that they are capable of implementing the project before getting their support, whether it be money or simply trust. What triggers Credentializing? The wish to minimize risk of the project triggers Credentializingn. Credentializing helps E-learning providers find ways to create trust and confidoenwce by demonstrating professional competence through a combination of th eTir qualifications and prior experience. pe Properties of Credentializing a  Project Credibility f C  Project Endorsement o  Certification recognsitiiotn y  Knowledge buildirng and proving it  Creating seilfv-ceonfidence on what is known  DealiUng wnith Uncertainty 330 Memo 13 -Legitimizing Definition (From the Data) On-line professionals find it problematic to communicate exactly what they are doing to their collaborative partners. These problems are caused by the barrier of IT technical jargon which the client partner rarely understands. To reduce the potential for misunderstanding they have to legitimize their actions. The process of legitimization is achieved by a combination of the IT professionanl‟s qualifications, past experiences and endorsed referral from other clients. ow T As soon as the legitimizing has been achieved, thee project gains popularity and more people tend to help it and get funding. Faor pexample, the Director of African Virtual Learning was not respected at all dufr inCg the start of African Virtual University; most people viewed him as wasting his otime. Just after securing endorsement from the Ministry of Education in Kenya, yhe legitimized the program, and more people were now coming to join thes pirtogram. He worked to rule and legitimize his profession to ensure respecte anrd recognition. Definition (From Cnonivjecture): Most E-learningU providers are not automatically respected by their prospective clients and funders. Because of this they have to use the process of legitimization. The failure of Universities to have clear guidelines regarding the employment and career structures for E-learning providers have exacerbated the problem. However after the online staff were legitimized through networking, collaborations and endorsement, most universities now amended their regulations and career structures. 331 Why is it Perpetual? It happens all the time. The online E-learning providers need to ensure the project is legitimized and is respected all the time, to its maturity stage. What triggers legitimizing. When E-learning providers are not fully respected by their clients or customers legitimizing is needed. wn Properties of Legitimizing o  Increase of respect from top managers e T  Synchronizing of the project with othaerp projects  Acceptability and recognition of tChe project ty of i ive rs Un 332 Memo 14-Recognitizing Definition (From Data) The purpose is to increase trust among the community. Most universities have been struggling to get recognized so that they can get more applications from students, get more partners, get more funding and increase networks. The Open University of Tanzania created various partners and programs to gain recognition for securing more funding, As soon as it was recognized, it capturedn US$2.1 Million. The online professionals also tend to find ways to be recognizedw for their contribution to the development of the university. Some of them tend Tto oinitiate new projects on their own, to ensure they get recognized and respecteed for their contribution. The Institute of Accountancy Arusha(IAA) professionals psought very hard to get partners from Asia to increase recognition. UniversitieCs aare working hard to get recognized through partnering with other strong universfit ies or partners. Definition (from Conjecture) ty o It is the process of gaining crrsediibility. The universities fight to gain recognition to help them get funding, clienet attention and networks. Gaining recognition helps the endorsement of the prnojeicvt from government authorities. As soon as the university is well known, it tendUs to capture strong partners, collaborations and networks to work with. This might be considered a halo effect. Why recognizing is Perpetual? The gaining of recognition happens all the time. The universities never stop looking for ways in which to gain recognition. They keep looking for recognition in different ways such as increased courses, being the first expert in certain areas of study and investing in attractive campus facilities. Universities always lack funding, 333 hence always keep looking for funds, always looking for recognition to capture more funds to run its projects. What triggers Recognizing ? Universities always lack various resources including funds. For it to get big funding it needs to have high recognition. For this case, it will keep looking for gaining recognition. But also due to high competition on enrolment, the universities are striving to gain recognition in order to get more students- the more recognition the more students enrol. When the programs finish, it is the endn of recognition of such programs. ow Properties of gaining recognition T  More funding from strong donors pe  More enrolment a  More programs C y o f rsi t niv e U 334 Memo 15- Project Credibility Definition (From Data) This is the process of creating trustworthiness in the project to ensure its reliability, and credibility. For the project to sustain and grow successfully it needs to build its integrity and its standing with the clients, donors and partners. The authority of the project necessitates project credibility and trust. Most universities tend to ensure there is trust towards execution of online projects. Where there is limited trust they tend to create it through collaboration and partners. wAlson they tend to use endorsement to build the credibility of the project. To Definition (From Conjecture) e This is building integrity in the implementatioan pof the project for the purpose of securing funding, partners, and networks. FCor example the University of Dar es Salaam took time to build its integrity oon tfh eir online programs for them to secure more students to enrol in the progratmy. i Why Project Credibility isr Pserpetual? It is happening all thiev tieme to ensure trustworthiness continues. Professionals have been working tonwards credibility before, during and after the execution of the project U What triggers Project Credibility to begin and end? When the university needs to expand its operations, gain reputation, and gain trustworthiness in their project development, resulting in greater credibility . Universities are in lack of funding. For them to secure funding, they need to build their credibility which can be through endorsement. It ends when the project has been successfully executed. 335 Properties of Project Credibility  Increase of funding opportunities  More partners in the project  More enrolment of students  Credibility is very fragile  Credibility is hard won and easily lost n Memo 16- Synchronizing Collaborative Relationships ow Definition (From Data) e T For the online learning project with collaboratiavep relationships to prosper it needs to be coordinated and harmonized with othCer projects within other collaborative relationships at the university. Most univerfs ities tend to have more than one project relationship. Another type of colltaybo raotive relationship comes from the need to coordinate to ensure positive impsaci over other existing relationships. The University of Nairobi had a relationship wirth University of Dar Es Salaam. The relationship was coordinated through apipvoineting new collaboration coordinators who were solely responsible for the colnlaboration relationship. Part of this work was to bring into line such collaborationU. Similarly the Institute of Accountancy in Arusha [IAA]is collaborating with Coventry University and with universities in Asia. To ensure that there is coordination the IAA has appointed coordinators for the Coventry collaboration and a coordinator for the Asian collaborations. This has helped to ensure there are mutual benefits between the parties. 336 Definition (From Conjecture) Ensuring mutual benefit of the relationship is necessary to have a formal organizational initiative in order to bring together the projects within the university. Universities do this through appointing special persons to be the coordinator of the specific collaborative relationship. Such a coordinator is responsible to ensure there is harmonious match up and mutual benefit of the project among the parties. Why Synchronizing Collaborative Relationships is Perpetual? Synchronizing collaborative relationships never stops. Ans soon as the collaboration starts, there is hard work being done byT thoe wuniversity to ensure immediately there is coordination too. e ap What triggers the beginning and en dC of synchronizing of collaborative relationships? of Any start of a collaboration rseliattiyonship will be the beginning of synchronizing to ensure the project is coordineatred and matches up to the other university projects. It ends when the project is icvompleted. Properties of SUynnchronizing of Collaborative Relationships  Positive project impact  No conflicts within the project  Mutual benefits among parties  Long term collaboration maintained 337 Memo 17- Professionalizing Definition (From Data) The process of providing professionalism, experience and competence for the purpose of managing Hiatus and boosting the IT professional‟s credibility. When an E-learning provider has side stepped and goneg through managing Hiatus, they tend to prove their expertise in the project. This helps them to remain confident and positive towards solving hiatus. For example, an online course ndeveloper at the University of Dar es Salaam had sometimes gone through swide stepping, due to misunderstanding between him and the Dean of the Facultyo on what type of online management system (Software) for delivering online Tcourses. The staff was assigned the work as an expert, to recommend thpe beest software to be used. The staff did recommend the best 10 possible softwaare with strong reasons. Finally the Dean implemented a quite different software wChich was not suggested at all. When the course developer asked the Dean wohaft happened, the Dean was not happy at all. That was the start of conflict and th e start of side stepping by this staff. While he stepped down, the course deveslopiteyr experienced hiatus. During the hiatus period the staff was in great difficulety. r However they did manage to overcome the hiatus by the Professionalising proicess. The result was that the Dean apologized to the staff member. The coursen devveloper used Professionalising to manage the hiatus, and also stay comfortaUble in his job. So many E-learning providers experiencing hiatus tend to leave a job and look for a new career. Definition (From Conjecture) Online learning professionals demonstrated their knowledge and skills which helped the project. These professionals, through the intelligent use of Professionalising, managed to capture the trust and confidence from the top managers and donors of the project. 338 Why professionalising is Perpetual? When online learning professionals experience hiatus, they tend to be undergoing Professionalising all the time. Professionalising happens continually for the purpose of increasing confidence, trust and reducing worries. What triggers Professionalising to begin and end? Disagreement between the online learning professional and top management or client on the issues in the project, will show his expertise in the area. Does this to win the trust from top managers on his ideas. wn Properties of Professionalizing To  Working more professional e  Showing his expertise ap  Self-confidence f C  Create more experts and eoxperience credentials ityrs Memo 18 -Bilateral Covnecording i Definition (FroUm Dnata) In every formal collaboration or partnership there is bilateral agreement done to ensure positive impact of the project to both parties. Parties involved in the partnership tend to sign memorandum of understanding in order to avoid conflicts within the project. The process is designed to minimize conflicts during the execution of the project. Should any conflict arise there is a written procedure on how to solve the conflict. For example the University of Dar es Salaam for every partnership they have built there is a signed memorandum of understanding to 339 ensure that both parties agree on how to run the project, which includes management of the project. This has helped to reduce the instance of conflicts. When there is no such agreement, many more conflicts can arise within the project. Definition (From Conjecture) Bilateral Concording is the process for agreeing on how to run the project between the two parties to ensure success and sustainability of the project. It is done through signing of Memorandum of Understanding between the parties. It is for ensuring no conflicts a rise during the execution of the projectn. It is the way to ensure parties are aware all about the partnerships. ow Why Gaining Bilateral Concording is cyclic? e T Bilateral Concording tends to be cyclic becauasep it is signed at the beginning of the project and during there execution of pr oCject, if there is any change of original terms due to change of technology, and oleafdership. It tends to be cyclical, to ensure sustainability of the project. ty What triggers Bilateral Cornscoirding to begin and end? The greater the risks iavnde more likely the uncertainty in a project, the more useful bilateral Concording bnecomes. Properties of BUilateral Concording  No conflicts within the project  Mutual benefit of the project  Well-coordinated project 340 Memo 19- Role Delineating Definition (From Data) The process of defining the role of each partner in the project to avoid rise of conflicts with the project. E-learning providers tend to ensure their role is defined before they start doing their work to avoid misunderstanding among the top management. They have been also using this as a way to mannage instances of hiatus. The universities tend to outline their main roles in the cowllaboration to ensure success of the project. It is the way to solve misunders taTndoings at work, within the collaborations, and to insure success of the project. For example an IT professional after having a disagreement with his superiors useps tehe process of role delineating as a means of conflict resolution. C a Definition (From Conjecture) of Each party in the project shoulidt cylearly understand its role. It does this through signing Memorandum of underrsstanding in which there is clear job descriptions of each party. ive Why Role DelinUeanting is spasmodic? It happens only once, normally at the start of the project or work. It happens to ensure clear job descriptions among parties. What triggers Role Delineation to begin and end? Within the university there are always misunderstandings between top managers and professionals on their duties, raising the need to have clear job descriptions to ensure such misunderstanding is solved 341 Properties of Role Delineation  Professional recognition  Expertise increase  Reduced conflicts and misunderstanding Memo 20 -Project Integrating Definition (From Data) wn A process of putting together different projects regarTdleoss of their background within the university for the purpose of increasinge s ustainability, success and ensuring support from entire university for onlinae pprofessionals. Within the same university there are various projects being ex eCcuted. To insure they are incorporated, the professionals tend to integrate theomf. They do this to ensure sustainability. Various projects within the same univer sity need to be coordinated and combined to achieve the university corporatet ystrategic objectives and mission. Always, universities have strategic objesctiives, vision and mission, which raises a need to have project integrating pvroecersses among various projects to fulfill their strategic positions. ni Why Project InUtegrating is Cyclical? It happens before the incubation of the project to ensure the when it comes it will first the university objectives, and this repeats at certain intervals to ensure real fit. 342 What triggers Project Integrating to begin and end? The strategic objectives of the university trigger the beginning of project integrating to ensure the objectives of the university are achieved through such projects in relation with other projects going on. It ends when the objectives are fulfilled. Properties of Project Integrating  Clear Strategic objectives  Harmonious project implementations wn  More support from top managers o  Increased awareness from the managemen t T  There are increased opportunities foar spyneergy f C Twenty (20) Memos Summary y o 20 memos emerged from trhse i1t01 respondent encounters. The next challenge was to discover which conceepts within these 20 memos could account for most of the variation in the data. i n v Overall ChallenUges of the Data Collection and Analysis Various challenges encountered during this long journey of data collection and analysis using Classic Grounded Theory methodology included:  How to deal with uncertainty and confusion? How to move from low level descriptive narratives towards conceptual explanations? These issues were resolved through the communication with Dr Andy Lowe and Prof. Irwin Brown 343  During early encounters with respondents they expressed concern that the researcher was not making notes during these meetings. Gradually they realized that the researcher wanted to have a series of open and frank conversations, rather than expose them to a researcher driven agenda, from which issues of concern would be allowed to arise naturally. The researcher discovered that respondents gradually became more relaxed and open as each encounter developed. The main challenge for the researcher was not to panic and keep calm and relaxed until the key issues of concern eventually did emerge. n  Lack of travel Sponsor (Funding), It has been very hard foor twhe researcher to get to the respondents, and it took the researcher a long tiTme to accomplish sufficient respondent encounters. The research preocess could have been finished much earlier had funds been available. p  Lack of clear knowledge on specific grou a nCded theory methodology issues. It was resolved through communication witho mfentor , Dr Andy Lowe y ers it Univ 344 A.8. Assessment of Key Concepts (Emerged Memos) The research has discovered that cultivating recognition is the core variable, which E-learning providers in East Africa continually have to resolve in order that and e-learning projects can be successfully implemented. Cultivating recognition is the process of gaining public acknowledgement of achievement. Both universities and E-learning providers in East Africa found that the “cultivation of recognition” was the vital prerequisite to the effective implementation of and e-lewarnning projects. By achieving recognition they increased their standing and repuotation which in turn led to both the sustainability of existing funding as well aes oTpening up the prospect of future and potentially more significant new souraceps of funding. Without sustained funding, achieved through cultivating recognfi tiCon, no matter how skilled the university based IT professional is, the develop moent of on-line and e-learning projects are unlikely to be successful. For tshei tinydividual IT professional academic it is also the most effective route to persoenarl career development and promotion. The cultivation of recognition can hapnpeinv in a variety of different contexts [university-to-government, government-to-univUersity, community-to-university, university-to-community, university-to-funding bodies, funding bodies-to-university, manager-to-employees, employee-to-manager, peer-to-peer, university-to-partners, partners-to-university]. This research has revealed that whatever the context of cultivating recognition process it cannot happen unless both legitimizing and credentializing are present. 345 Legitimizing Legitimizing refers to the process of ensuring the project is deliverable, valid and sustainable. The process of legitimizing is quite tricky for the E-learning providers to achieve. This is because it can only happen by the endorsement of respected third parties. These third parties sometimes have difficulty, prior to the project‟s commencement, in understanding the full implications that e-learning can make to increasing educational effectiveness. One of the main barrierws thnese third parties have is to be able to have a good understanding of theT moeaning of the technical jargon employed by E-learning providers working in theis field. On-line professionals also often find it problematic to clearly communiacatpe exactly what they are doing to their collaborative partners. To reduce thef p oCtential for misunderstanding they have to legitimize their actions. As soon ythe olegitimizing has been achieved, the project gains more acceptance which sin itturn leverages future funding. Legitimizing is a perpetual process. The onelinre E-learning providers need to ensure the project is legitimized and is respnecitevd throughout the process. The main symptom of the lack of legitimization is Uthe lack of respect shown to E-learning providers by some clients and funders. Legitimizing happens because when E-learning providers are not fully respected by their clients or customers. The increased respect from top managers has been shown to happen more frequently when E-learning providers carry out the following three activities of collaborating partners, referral networking and strategic 346 alliancing. All of these processes need to be present if legitimizing is to be successful. Firstly IT project professionals make collaborations with other experienced partners prior to the formal submission of funding submissions. These collaborations can either be asymmetrical or reciprocal. Secondly, they make full use of their existing referral networks so that the potential client or funder has more confidence in the proposal. Finally, E-learning providers were more successful wwhenn, as part of the proposal document, they had already entered into formTal ostrategic alliances with other respected partners. pe It was also found that successful E-learninCg paroviders were able to gain more traction in their projects when they wereo abfl e to simultaneously synchronize several different projects. This was becaustey of the potential for serendipity from one project to another that synchronicity corusld ideliver. e Collaborating Partnenrs iv This research has Udiscovered that collaborating partners can happen in two different ways; either asymmetrically or reciprocally. Asymmetrical collaborating is a concept which explains how the weaker party in the collaboration is able to obtain the benefits that collaboration brings, whilst skillfully avoiding being dominated by the more powerful partner. In all collaborations each partner will have slightly differing agendas. The weaker partner is potentially always more vulnerable. The more 347 leverage the powerful partner has, the more they will strive to ensure that the project is implemented. An example of asymmetric collaborating is when the university is collaborating with the government. The government is always more powerful than the university. In asymmetric collaborations the weaker partners skillfully manages to extract resources and finances from the dominant party without being overwhelmed. The E-learning providers attempt to transform the asymmetric collaboration to a reciprocal relationship wherever possible. nThis is because asymmetric relationships tend to be limited to being solely a oconwtractual relationship, where as reciprocal relationships always have a greate r Tpotential for development beyond a single project. Asymmetric collaboratinag pis elikely to have several different temporal characteristics. They can be cy cClical, spasmodic and also perpetual. Asymmetric collaborating happens bec aousfe once a project is completed it restarts again in the new project. It becomietsy cyclical when the need for change arises. For example when it is necessarry sto convert direct learning to online learning, this becomes the trigger for iavsyemmetric collaborating. The change is facilitated by the lack of physical inUfrasntructure and resources in the direct learning or face to face learning. During the implementation process, the need for more partners will often arise. This in term will trigger more collaborations within the project. Other factors facilitate the refining of such collaboration is the rapid change of technology, funding and availability of online expert. 348 Every time there is a change of such factors it will lead to the start of new collaboration or agreement or refining of the current collaborations. These in turn rejuvenate the project. As soon as the junior partner is able to stand on his own, the IT professional tends to start projects running parallel with the partnering projects with new partners. The research has revealed the following to be properties of asymmetrical collaborating:  recognized and increase credibility; ow n  Increased and known intellectual property over ow nTership; e  New operation expansion; Quality control aandp assurance; C  Project sustainability and growth; of  Attracting more donorss iatn yd funding to be properties of asymmetric collaborating. erv Asymmetrical collabonraiting is spasmodic when certain relationships create unanticipated probUlems and there will have to be strategies in place to deal with the unforeseen. In such situations it is reasonable to expect asymmetric collaboration to be spasmodic. Asymmetric relationships can also be perpetual. Even in harmonious relationships conflicts of interest or agenda priorities could differ. To avoid and deal with these issues it is also quite feasible that asymmetric collaborating will also have to be perpetual. 349 Reciprocal collaborating is the process of mutual benefit for the parties in sharing powers and status. Two parties come together to obtain agreed objectives by contributing different and unique skills and investments. For E-learning providers to share equally the right of ownership of IT projects, they have to maneuver themselves into a position of parity. To ensure this, E-learning providers have been designing and signing various agreements and memorandum of understanding. All parties sign such agreements to enter into the collaboration. The pnarties coming into reciprocal collaborating have same power and status. Howoevwer, if one partner will be of higher status and power than the other, then the cTollaborating will change to asymmetrical collaborating [becoming no longer preeciprocal collaboration]. The research has revealed that reciprocal collaCboraating is spasmodic. Reciprocal collaborating can happen at any stage oof tfh e project. The collaboration tends to be for securing funds, strengthening itthye programs and recognition. As soon as such goals are achieved, the procresss ends there. However the relationship tends to evolve into new collaboraitviones as the situation changes. n On one hand, theU rapid change of technology, increased number of students to attend universities and pressure from government to enroll as many students as possible, all make it imperative for reciprocal relationships to flourish. On the other hand, the lack of qualified staff or expertise also triggers the university to look for partners, so that they can start staff exchange programs to develop the staff and have enough experts. When the university would like to apply for funding, the 350 funding criteria is for the university to have collaborating partnerS, then the university will need to look for collaborators. The end of the project, will trigger the end of reciprocal collaborating. The research has revealed more referral network creation and increaseD of degree of mutual benefits to be the properties of reciprocal collaborating. Strategic Alliancing n The research revealed that university projects are legitimoizewd through strategic alliancing. Strategic alliance (SA) is a medium to long teTrm process of connecting with other parties in order to secure the compleptioen of a project with mutually beneficial outcomes. It is a process of workingC toagether for the purpose of delivery of online courses or securing funding. oSufc h processes include matching of the strategic objectives of one institutiotny to the other. When it matches, then they form such alliances to ensure all benresfiti from the alliance. Most universities in East Africa tend to form strategic aillvianeces to increase program delivery, recognition, secure credibility, popularUity, nrecognition, project quality, and funding opportunities. A strategic alliance helps both institutions grow and have sustainable programs. Most funders tend to ask for a strategic alliance configuration as a precondition of funding. Such alliances can be done through exchange of programs and staff. The alliancing institutions have reciprocal alliancing characteristics that have similar power and status in the management of the project. They tend to sign agreements to ensure smooth delivery of the program. Strategic alliancing usually happens prior to the 351 commencement of a project. Strategic alliancing is triggered by the client‟s wish to reduce uncertainty and risk. The greater the perceived uncertainty and risk of the online learning project by the client, the greater need for strategic alliancing. The research discovered that increased collaboration and funding always then led to increased legitimization. Referral Networking n To further increase the legitimizing of projects, E-learningo prwoviders tend to use referral networking. Referral networking is the process oTf both stimulating existing and creating new contacts. These connections paned networks can be used for endorsing online learning projects there by inCcreaasing their credibility. It is done to capture more opportunities in terms of fuondfi ng, collaborations, and popularity of the online programs. The clients and sttuyde nts tend to believe in networking as soon as they see more networks for ther ssami e project and they tend to join the program more easily. One of the pre-irevqueisites to secure funding from donors is to have and activate referral neUtwonrks. Such networks should be strong and well known in their host country. Successful E-learning providers work hard to capture and build referral networking to ensure that they get recognized and capture more funding. Referral networking process is perpetual. E-learning providers are looking for the networks all the time to ensure the project is sustainable. The need for referral networking (RN) is more urgent when the party seeking resources or influence is short of credibility and experience. The process of RN is dynamic and changes as credibility 352 and influence increases and diminishes. A RN may begin with the weaker party being vulnerable, but at later stages as more competence is demonstrated the receiver of credibility and influence can become the giver of resources and influence. It is not a one way process. The research has discovered that by creating connections which enable more project funds, also ensures a higher level of client confidence through the process of legitimization. Credentializing ow n Credentializing is the creation of increased client beli eTf of the IT professional‟s competence to execute a project on time and withinp beudget by the skilful articulation of three key processes. Firstly, all claims anCd satatements of accomplishments and achievements, made by the E-learning oprofv iders, must be endorsed by respected external third parties. Secondly, thiet yIT professional must be able to both understand and execute project prioritiesr sby the skillful accomplishment of the process of prioritizing. Finally, the IiTv perofessional must develop a results orientated mindset by cultivating the skillsU invnolved in result orienting. Professionalizing The IT professional must present his professional work experience and academic qualifications to the client in a format with which the clients can easily comprehend and are perceived to be relevant. This means that the IT professional must tailor each CV specifically to meet the needs of each client. The use of standard CVs for 353 all clients is both unwise and ineffective. The process by which the IT professional is both trusted and respected by the client is professionalizing. Professionalizing is the process of demonstrating the experience and competence for the purpose of managing Hiatus and boosting the IT professional‟s credibility. Professionalizing is perpetual because client confidence and trust, needs to be continually nurtured and once lost is very difficult to re-establish. The use of professional qualifications, experience and accumulated social cwrednit is used to lower the perceived risk to potential strategic partners. On Toneo hand, the E-learning providers uses this process for proving capability, comep etence and power to make things work effectively. On the other hand, onlinea leparning staff have been using this technique to ensure that their clients beflie vCe that they are fully able to deliver projects on time and to the desired q uoality. The E-learning providers must first believe in themselves. If they hsaviet yself-confidence, which they are able to do that and they show that they aree qrualified experts in their professionals they are more likely to be approved nof ibvy their clients. This involves showing that they are able to solve online probleUms. Credentializing The most important characteristic for Credentializing is that the E-learning providers must display high levels of self confidence in their decision making. For example, the coordinator of online programs at the University of Dar es Salaam, used this 354 technique to increase trust with his senior manager. His senior managers were not E-learning providers; they had degrees in other fields, and they did not believe a person is able to learn online. The process of Credentializing is perpetual. The E- learning providers are required to prove to clients, community and donors that they are capable of implementing the project before getting their trust and support. The wish to minimize risk of the project by the funders triggers Credentializing. Credentializing helps E-learning providers find ways to create trusnt and confidence by demonstrating professional competence through a ocowmbination of their qualifications and prior experience. This research Thas revealed that the Credentializing process as a way to cultivating recogpnietion cannot happen unless it is endorsed by influential third parties. f C a Endorsementizing ty o Hence to ensure they trusted rhsimi, he had to demonstrate that he was skilled and competent in the field oif voneline learning. He was able to do this because of the Endorsementizing Ueffenct derived from his strategic alliances. This Endorsementizing by respected third parties made him seem more credible in the eyes of his senior manager. Prioritizing E-learning providers use prioritizing as a way to credentialize their work. Prioritizing is the process of ensuring that all tasks are sequenced in order of importance to 355 ensure the project‟s successful completion. The process helps to increase competence and recognition. The process of prioritizing is cyclical dynamic. It starts when there is a tendency of failure to recognize the IT professional. Sometimes prioritizing happens spasmodically. The Prioritizing process is triggered by the lack of respect or recognition from the top managers. Their innovative ideas have been accepted and implemented by the top managers and universities, which also underpin their professionalism. w Nenither high profile endorsing nor skilful prioritizing can guarantee that credenTtialoizing will be successful. The IT professional also has to have the ability to be reesu lts orientated. p Results orienting a f C This can be achieved by doing four t hoings. Firstly, the IT professional must be skilled in the process of visualizin y sgi. t This involves the ability to clearly envisage, prior to the commencement of thee prroject, what the successfully completed project would be like. Secondly, bny iinvstituting and policing role delineating regimes to avoid conflicts. Thirdly bUy focalizing or being obsessive about details. This ensures the perpetual concentration on all key issues relating to the project including synchronizing on-line learning with conventional learning. Finally, by the use of professionalism and competence so that unforeseen crises such conflict hiatus can be dealt with effectively. 356 Result orienting is the process of ensuring there are results and achievements in the planned project so that clients can recognize such efforts. The skilled IT professional tends to be very aware of what the successfully delivered project will look like long before any project has begun. The issue for the IT professional is how to communicate this clearly to both the client and partners. The more skilled the IT profession is in this process the more likely that staff will work together to ensure the intended results are achieved. The achievement of sustained nresults is a very effective to cultivate recognition. Some teachers are relucotawnt to get into online teaching. The ones who have volunteered to venture int oT have been recognized by their achievements. Result orienting is a perpetual ppreocess because most of the IT projects and E-learning providers get recog nCitio an benefit from the leverage, which result orienting brings. To attract more poartfners and clients needs endorsement from the trusted partners. It happens alli tthye time. In few cases it happens cyclically. That means as soon one project isr csompleted, the E-learning providers need to look for the other, making it to biev ae continuous cyclic process. E-learning providers and IT projects are alwayUs snhort of recognition, yet the demand of recognition is always growing, making it to be the start of result orienting to enable recognition. To ensure more funding, support, and promotion, E-learning providers tend to ensure there is a positive result to the previous projects. They tend to be more result oriented, hence activate recognition. This research has revealed result orienting as a way to credentialize cannot happen unless the IT professional is able visualize the successful project outcome. 357 Visualizing Visualizing is the process of having the clarity and understanding of what the final outcome of the project will realistically be. The E-learning providers needs to have a vision to sustain IT project within their universities. The success of the projects depends on the creative thinking. E-learning providers tend to see the success of the project positively. They tend to have a vision of what their career is all about. It not only includes maximum implementation of online programs buwt alsno to ensure they are able to achieve rapid growth in their personal acadTemoic careers. Visualizing overcomes the negative attitudes of clients and the peroj ect students, who can have very negative attitudes on the use of technolaogpy for learning. Visualizing is a continuous process. It repeats when there fis Ca change of sustainability factors. The cycle of visualizing ensures the susyta inoability of the project. Some of the factors which facilitate the cycle of vissuailtizing include change of technology, change of management, change of proejerct timeline and funding opportunities. The universities have been refining then viisvions of their projects at certain intervals, to ensure project success. It helps Uto manage funds, gain trust, partners, increase recognition and credibility. The frequency of cycles of visualizing appears to be stimulated by the absence of trust and credibility. The greater degree of trust and credibility in the project and its leader the less frequent the visualization cycle becomes. This study has revealed different levels of atitude and perception; degree of trust and credibility. 358 Project synchronizing stimulates the development of referral networks and creates more trust and recognition. Focalizing Focalising is the process of staying attentive and of having an obsessive attention to detail. E-learning providers tend to concentrate on these until they are solved. For example they tend to work in one course to convert it to online leanrning before they go to the other. On other hand, E-learning providers tend otow focus on their main responsibilities to ensure success and be recognized fTor promotion. When they concentrate to their main responsibilities, they tendp toe do it more skilfully and have acceptable solutions for the respective proCbleam. By focalising, the E-learning providers tend to help synchronize theo ofn line learning with the direct learning. Keeping focused helps them to etnysu re quality and control over the intellectual property, as well as making threisr pirofession recognized. For example one of the IT professional concentrateivd esolely on his responsibility to ensure management recognized him forU gonod work. Within a few months, they promoted him to the next salary level. When IT professionals focus on one course, as soon it takes off, they move to another new course. Focalising is a cyclical and dynamic process. In few cases the process is also perpetual. This happens when several courses are happening in parallel. When increased demand stimulates enrolment expansion it also triggers the intensity of 359 focalizing. For example, when a funding door opens, the university will urgently focalize to capture it. Such moment capture opportunities could be the availability of funding, change of technology, more clients, availability of partners and networks. Focalizing will help to increase recognition of the university. When the project has been executed, focalizing ceases, but will restart with the next new project. The change of technology will trigger the change of focus and vision of the project. For example when the operating systems change and the university wonuld like to change to new operating systems. The first step is to change thoe wfocus to be able to implement the change. Not only does focalizing eTnd when the project is implemented, but also when it fails to continue duae tpo leack of resources. Role Delineating C of Role delineating is the process of idteyfin ing the specific duties and responsibilities of each partner in the project in rorsder to avoid conflicts. E-learning providers tend to ensure their role is idvefiened before they start doing their work to avoid misunderstanding Uamnong the senior management. Role delineation also defuses hiatus. The universities tend to outline their main roles in the collaborations to ensure success of the project. It is the way to solve misunderstandings at work, within the collaborations and to ensure success of the project. Role delineating is a spasmodic process, normally at the start of the project or work. It happens to ensure both clarity and transparency of all job descriptions among the parties. Within the university there is always the potential for misunderstanding between top managers 360 and professionals. The study has discovered several role delineating properties including professional recognition, expertise increase, and reduced conflicts and misunderstanding. In conclusion, the study discovered that cultivating recognition to be the IT professional‟s main concern that they have to continually resolve. The main concern in the classic grounded theory research methodology is called the core variable. So called because the core variable is the main issue that can acwcount for most of the variation in the data. Cultivating recognition cannot beT aochieved without the IT professional also being skilled in both legitimizing ande c redentializing. Legitimizing and credentializing are the sub-core variables. ap C of ity ive rs Un 361 A.9. Working paper on How to Create and Sustain Transparency when Using the Classic Grounded Theory Research Method Abstract The Classic Grounded Theory [CGT] research method reveals latent patterns of human behaviour. It is a general research methodology because int makes use of all kinds of data, whether they be qualitative or quantitative data. CwGT‟s main objective is to discover a robust empirically derived hypothesis oTr coore variable. The core variable articulates the main concern of the respondpenets. It is so called because the core variable is able to explain most of theC vaariation in the data. The particular feature of the CGT research method is thatf i t is transcendent of both time and place. This is because CGT delivers a tcoyn ceoptual explanation rather than a low level descriptive context based narrrsatiive. As the number of researchers using CGT increases so does the povteential for more confusion regarding the legitimate criteria for its evaluation. Tno icontribute towards eliminating the confusion, this paper investigates waysU of creating and sustaining transparency using the Classic Grounded Theory research method. This will, hopefully, enable researchers, supervisors and respective institutions to make more informed decisions on how to evaluate research, which has used the CGT research methodology. Keywords: Classic Grounded Theory, transparency, theoretical sensitivity, theoretical memos, Classic Grounded Theory evaluation 362 Introduction CGT‟s main objective is to discover a robust empirically derived hypothesis or core variable. The core variable articulates the main concern of the respondents. It is so called because the core variable is able to explain most of the variation in the data. The particular feature of the CGT research method is that it is transcendent of both time and place (Glaser 1978, 1992, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2008, 2009). This is because CGT delivers a conceptual explanation rather than a wlown level descriptive context based narrative. The emerged grounded theory mTusot earn its way by being able to demonstrate that it represents the main conceern of those being researched (Glaser, 1978). There are four main criteria with wahipch to evaluate CGT. They will all be discussed later in this paper in more detfa il C(Glaser & Strauss, 1967, Glaser, 1978, 1992, 1998, 2001). Unfortunately, soome researchers claim to be using CGT whereas they have simply borrow y seidt the powerful jargon of CGT in order to legitimize their work without followineg rall the tenets of CGT (Glaser, 2006). This has perpetuated confusionn aimvong researchers, sponsors and institutions as to how to evaluate CGT reseUarch based projects. The expression “transparency” in this paper is taken to mean the degree to which the reader of CGT research has an unambiguous and fully accessible explanation of the CGT researcher‟s journey from raw data to the main concern of those being researched. This paper will clarify how transparency can be created and sustained through out the CGT process. 363 The paper has four main sections: a clarification of the main purpose of the CGT research method, an explanation of the CGT process, and a detailed outline of how transparency is both created and maintained throughout the CGT process and finally how CGT must be evaluated. Clarification of the main purpose of the CGT research method This research method is a latent pattern indicator. It achievesn this by revealing the respondents deep seated habitual tendencies. Thesoe wtendencies will exist whether any research is done or not. They are difficult toT reveal because often the respondent‟s are unaware of them although they copnsetitute an important part of their daily behaviour. a f C CGT is multivariate (Glaser 199 8o), process which happens sequentially, subsequently, simultaneously, sereitnydipitously and in a scheduled manner. It is the systematic generation of theeorrys from data acquired by rigorous research method [Glaser (1967, 1978, 1n99iv8, 2000, 2007, 2008, and 2009)]. It is an integrated set of conceptual hypothUesis, probability statements about the relationship between concepts. The hypotheses are generated through constant coding and analyzing of data. CGT is a general research method which is not evidence based. This is because when using evidentiary data it presupposes that deductive hypothesis based research method is being employed. CGT is a general research method 364 which is mainly inductive. Glaser (1978:134) explains why it is inappropriate to treat CGT as though it were evidence based. "The credibility of the theory should be won by its integration, relevance and workability, not by illustrations as if it were proof. The theory is an integrated set of hypotheses, not of findings. Proofs are not the point." An explanation of the CGT process n CGT is a non-linear process. Although there are very ospewcific stages through which the CGT researcher must go through, the ordeer oTf doing them will change according to what emerges from the data. This ais pnecessary in order to reveal the deep seated patterns of human behavioufr. CThe orthodox structure of CGT is as follows: y ot Generating Theoretical Sernssiitivity The researcher, priori tvo eembarking on any CGT research, must first develop his theoretical sensitivUity. n What this entails is explained by Glaser (1978). There are already in existence literally hundreds of patterns of human behaviour. Having a repertoire of these in advance of doing the research is absolutely essential. Here are just a few examples of theoretical codes: (1) Causal consequence models [cause, consequences, contexts, contingencies, covariances and conditions] 365 (2) Process models [stages, phases, polarity, progressions, temporaling and cycling] (3) Degree models [cutting points, probability, polarity, continuum and intensity] (4) Asymptote models [maths model for getting as close as possible] (5) Isomorphism [maths model how one established theory can trigger a new theory] wn (6) Moment capture [business model which explains h oTw omany financial services operate] pea Armed with a repertoire of theoretical cofd eCs it is easier for the CGT researcher to start making sense of his data. y o Theoretical Sampling rsi t This is a form a sampilvinge in which it is both inappropriate and impossible, prior to doing the researchU, ton state exactly what data will be needed. This is because the sampling process will only cease once the core variable has emerged. The researcher samples his data until he discovers the main concern of the respondents. The researcher then samples within his chosen constituency for this newly emerged concept. Once the researcher reaches the point where no more patterns emerge, the data is said to be saturated and the core variable to have emerged. 366 Theoretical sampling is a process of data collection for generating theory whereby the researcher simultaneously, generates, codes, analyzes and synthesizes data and decides what data to collect next and where to find them. The researcher begins by selecting a context for the research. He then has a series of short conversations with a small number of respondents. This has to be so for two reasons. Firstly, a high level of rapport must be established between the researcher and respondent so that trust and respect can develop. This can nnot happen easily with single encounters. Secondly, the researcher must not moakwe use of any form of recording or note taking during the meeting. This both d eTepened the trust between researcher and respondent and increased thpe elevel of the researcher‟s concentration. Immediately following all encoCunaters with respondents the research must then document the interaction by u soinfg a theoretical memo. y Theoretical Memos sitr Theoretical memos airev deescribed by Glaser (1978:83) as “the theorising write up of ideas about codes Uandn their relationships as they strike the analyst while coding”. They are the means to abstraction and ideation and can be used continually throughout the CGT process. Initially they start out as a short sentence but as the analysis moves on, they are up dated and developed can be several pages long. Substantive Coding 367 These are the very first attempts to highlight the data which the analyst believes may have importance beyond the simple description of the context of the data. These codes are labelled and often gerunded. In other words the researcher converts the substantive code label into a verb ending in “ing”. The purpose of this is to sensitise the researcher to the processes and patterns which be revealed at a later stage. Theoretical coding wn o This is a conceptual code. It arises from the synthes isT of the substantive codes. To move from substantive codes to theoretical codpese is tricky and often elusive. It can be achieved by examining the interplay bCetwaeen theoretical memos. The main mechanism for this called the constant ocofm parison method. Here the researcher has to engage both the intellect antdy in tuition to achieve a shift in perspective from low level context based descriprtisoni to higher level conceptual abstract. e The Constant Comnpiavrison Method The researcherU has to painstakingly look across all his data in all his theoretical memos to look for various types of indicators which might lead him to reveal previously hidden connections and patterns. There is a hierachy at play here. It starts with raw data in the theoretical memos and so on to substantive coding which is then fractured into categories and sub categories. These in term have different properties. Then both the categories as well as the properties get constantly 368 compared across all the theoretical memos. As this begins to gather pace theoretical codes begin to emerge. What begins as a property of a category of a substantive codes sometimes emerges as a theoretical code in its own right. Only by constantly comparing the data for differences and similarities can theoretical codes emerge. The exceptions to this are those rare occasions when the respondent himself is an articulate conceptualizer and is able to step back from his own context and give an authentic explanation of his main concern. wn Sorting To This is an iterative process which occurs at the plater stages of the CGT process. The reason this is so is because it will ensuCre tahat the emerging theoretical codes really have earned their place. If sortingo dofe s not happen several times it is unlikely that the research will move mucht ybe yond low level narrative description. The principle aim of the sorting prorcsesises is to ensure that the emerging core variable has been fully saturated iavnde has earned its place in the research process. Un The Emergence of the Core Variable The core variable is so called because it is around this variable which can account for most of the variation in the data. It is the main concern of the respondents explained at the conceptual level. Frequently there are also sub-core variables which lead into the core variable. 369 An outline of how transparency is both created and maintained throughout the CGT process The difficulties of CGT researchers penetrating the peer review process are threefold. Firstly, the majority of the academic community is polarized. Some have a preference for quantitative research paradigms. Others have a bias towards qualitative research paradigms. Secondly, CGT fits into neither of these two major categories of research methodologies because it a general rewseanrch methodology where all is data. Finally, there is a fundamental and widTesporead misunderstanding that CGT is a qualitative research method. This is cheara cterized by Glaser‟s (2009) detailed rebuttal of Bryant & Charmaz (2007) caatepgorization of CGT as though it were simply another qualitative research meft hCodology. o The authors of this paper conte intdy that instead of attempting to explain why CGT is neither a quantitative rerssearch methodology nor a qualitative research methodology CGT reseaircvhers should instead concentrate on making the processes of CGT more transUparnent to all. In that way uninitiated readers of CGT research will be able figure out for themselves how the CGT researcher moved from raw data to fully emerged core variable. To achieve this clarity, the CGT researcher should not only follow the tenets of CGT as specified by its co-originator Glaser(1978) but must also be more explicit about the legitimate evaluation criteria for CGT also outlined by Glaser(1978). Failure to do this will result inappropriate evaluation criteria being applied to CGT research. 370 Transparency can be achieved by an unambiguous explanation of the researcher‟s exposure to the development of his/her own theoretical sensitivity. This will assist the reader to better understand the initial processes involved in moving from raw data to theoretical sampling and eventually to the emergence of the core variable. Two examples of the effectiveness of transparency in CGT are to be found in both Guajardo (2004) and Rosenbaum (2008). Guajardo (2004) skilfully reveals her transition from theoretical sensitivity to the emergence of the cnore variable. Her explanation of how a group of undergraduate studentos wtackled non-routine mathematical problems during a problem solving cours eT by “solutioning” is totally transparent. Rosenbaum(2008) intelligently useas phise prior theoretical sensitivity to core indexing to reveal the theory of trCapped travel consumption amongst passengers on inter island ferries in the Hoawfaiian Islands. y Generating Theoretical Senssiititvity r Anyone reading a theisvis ewhich has used CGT must be able to assess the extent to which the reseaUrchenr prior to starting the project has been exposed to theoretical sensitivity. This will become obvious by the skill with which the researcher deals with his data. Theoretical Sampling The researcher has to very explicitly explain how and why his theoretical sampling has been constructed. There must be a clearly stated logical argument as 371 to the main reasons for his choice. There should be no note taking or recording during the encounters with respondents. There are four main reasons why real time note making during the interactions with the respondents is to be avoided in CGT. Firstly, it allows the respondents feel more relaxed and less threatened by the encounter with the researcher. Secondly, because the researcher is not taking any notes at the meeting he will have to make each encounter with the respondents quite brief; this greatly awssisnts the process of theory generation because allows the researcher examine Thiso data reflectively before arranging subsequent meetings. Thirdly, the groundeed theory method is a delayed action process both for the respondent and for thae rpesearcher. Thus having a series of brief interactions with the same respondfe nCt permits the development of concepts rather than just descriptions. Finally, t hoe researcher is encouraged to make notes immediately following the encousnteirt wyith respondents rather than in real time forcing the researcher to increase heis lrevel of concentration during the encounter rather than passively going througnh aiv check list of pre-determined questions. Theoretical MeUmos and coding Although there is no standard template which all theoretical memos must adhere to there are some basic issues which all theoretical memos must address. If these are not present then it would not be transparent to the reader how the researcher 372 progressed from raw data to emerged core variable. All memos should contain the following to meet transparency requirements: (1) Memo Title (2) Summary of any substantive codes, categories and properties (3) Conceptual indicators [These are important links that form the bridge from substantive description to conceptual explanation] wn (4) Emergent theoretical codes, categories and prope rte Tieso (5) A statement as to the type of data researachepr believes he has been given to him by the respondent [Baseline – rfe liCable, properlined - manipulated, vague – economical with the truth or in teorpreted data – edited]. It actually does not matter at all when doing CGitTy what type of data the researcher has because everything is data. Ife perosple are being untruthful for example that is probably more interesting ithvan if they were being honest. What is of the utmost importance iUs thne researcher does fully understand what type of data he has. (6) A clear separation of empirical data from conjecture data. Both are important in CGT but they are quite different types of data and need to treated accordingly. 373 (7) How has the data been fractured? Which conceptual theoretical perspectives has the researcher used to better understand the latent patterns embedded in the data? (8) What links have been highlighted to other memos from the researcher‟s bank of memos? (9) What unanswered questions arising from the data will the nresearcher use in his next meeting with the respondent? ow (10) How have the theoretical concepts in each meemo Tbeen constantly compared and then sorted? apC The Constant Comparison Method oanfd Sorting The reader of a CGT thesis shoiutlyd be able to easily understand how and why the both the constant comparisoen rasnd sorting process were operationalised. There are now commercially availaivble computer software packages which are designed to “speed up” these pUrocnesses. However Glaser (1996) strongly advises researchers to avoid their use. This is not for reactionary reasons but is rather that the use of computer packages in Glaser‟s words is “a creative kop out”. He says there are four main reasons why the use of computer software should be avoided when using CGT. Firstly, computer packages are excellent for dealing with very large volumes of data. If the research is using CGT correctly then there is no need for very large volumes of data because latent patterns can be detected from rather small amounts 374 of data. Secondly, Glaser (1996) states that when sorting is done manually it takes time. This time can be used creatively and productively by the researcher to reflect on the data itself. The CGT is delayed action phenomena both for the researcher as well as the respondent. Thirdly, when a CGT researcher is faced with having to manually analyze a mass of his data it can seem overwhelming and can create a degree of anxiety. This anxiety results in fear or psychological regression. However the CGT researcher needs to develop skills to cut through the unncertainty in order that the authentic latent emerges rather than being forced. oCowmputer packages to date are unable to do this. Finally none of the currently a vTailable computer software packages have been written by people who fully uandperestand the CGT process. The Emergence of the Core Variable f Co It must be possible for the resietayrc her to demonstrate to the reader a pathway through his data showing howr tshe raw data emerged to become the core variable. But it should not be treiavteed as evidence. It should instead be presented in a transparent way sUo tnhat the reader can immediately understand how the core variable emerged. This can be achieved in a PhD thesis by publishing thin deep slices of data in the appendices of the thesis for all to see. How CGT must be evaluated The grounded theory research method is a general inductive methodology which can be applied to all types of data both quantitative and qualitative or the 375 combination thereof Glaser (1978, 1998). It is not a sub set of Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA). Therefore QDA criteria are inappropriate for the evaluation of research done by using grounded theory research method. Glaser (1978, 1998, 2000, and 2001) reiterates the four main criteria with which to evaluate grounded theory study as follows: (a) Fit n Fit of a concepts means that it adequately reflects the odawta that it purports to express. The categories must fit the data used to creeat eT the theory. Ungrounded assumptions and forcing the data into preconceiavepd concepts derails fit in CGT, as well as the relevancy of the theory. (Fit cofrr eCsponds to positivistic validity; however, it is fit in action and usage, not by tes tiong.). In comparison with the pre-conceived research such as testing hypotheistisy, data which can not be forced are discarded, rather than used to correct ceatergsories. Data and only data for development of theory makes CGT to be fit nGilavser (1978, 1998). The fit could be expressed as refit or emergent fit. The cUategories during research emerge so fast, raising the need to refit them to the data as the research proceeds to be sure they fit all the data they purport to indicate, increasing the transparency. Categories can emerge between data and pre existent categories (Glaser, 1978). 376 (b) Workability How does the core variable account for the respondents‟ continual resolution of their main concern? The emergent GT must clearly explain what is happening, and the nature of its occurrence and by so doing should be able to predict future behaviour (Glaser 1978, 1998, 2001). wn (c) Relevance To How was the emerged core variable been repceeived by the members of the constituency from where the data was drawn?C Parior to the research commencing it is very likely that respondents would be fu nable to articulate their main concern. Once they have read the researcht ythe yo should be able to instantly recognize the emerged core variable as beingr sauithentic. e (d) Modifiability niv The theory is coUnsidered modifiable if it is easy for subsequent CGT researchers to catch up with what has been done so far, and to proceed to modify or refine the theory as they collect and code new data (e.g., code new data for emergent fit), without invalidating the theory. Questions on the issue of transparency raised by universities such as “How research using CGT can have chain of evidence? How this reconcile with the approach of not 377 recording and not taking notes in interviews? How will you demonstrate the chain of evidence from data to concept/theory?” have an implied assumption of the requirement for accuracy in the collection of evidence based data. CGT is an inductive research methodology so it is appropriate only to use a legitimate set of evaluation criteria as outlined by the CGT‟s co-orginator Glaser (1978, 1992, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007, and 2008). However there must be total transparency when using CGT so the reader can easilyw annd clearly see how the emergent core variable arose. To Glaser (2007:41-42) explains why the level of mpisuenderstanding of the grounded theory research method still persists amongsCt many academics because they fail to distinguish clearly between "conceoptufa l generalizations" and "descriptive generalizations". ity s "The constant comparativee mrethod [at the heart of CGT] was originated in 1967 to generate concepts by cnonsitvantly comparing indicators of a latent pattern. After several comparisons the resuUlt is conceptually naming the pattern and its properties.....The category is abstract of time, place and people. The conceptual category applies with emergent fit. The Formal CGT research generates categories that relate to each other as generalizations. In contrast descriptive comparisons are as old as research itself. They just compare differences and similarities and a sum of description of people's social actions in a unit of time. The concern is always accuracy, that is, the researcher has worrisome accuracy to 378 constantly contend with. Generalizations are difficult to make from one unit to another and even within the unit studied. These are the problems of accuracy of external and internal validity respectively of descriptive generalizations. Conceptual generalizations do not have this validity problem. They just apply within a context applied to with modification. For example, controlling clients by pseudo-friending simply varies for client types and client conditions." n Finally Glaser (2009:15) gives a robust responsoe wto the continuing misconceptions regarding CGT as articulated by Bryant & TCharmaz (2007). e "Data worries dominate the GT jargonizing of QaDAp issues in the Handbook. And why shouldn't it? Worrisome accuracy is the centrfal Cissue of QDA. QDA research has to yield accurate description, which puts an emph aosis on analyzing the data used in any research every which way to see what, indeesd,i its ybeing described and is verifiable. And furthermore how fast will the descriptione gert stale-dated and if it can be momentarily discursively generalized. This is a pnerievnnial, non-solvable problem. It totally neglects the conceptual level of GT, which Uis free of and abstract of place, time and people and hence free of worrisome accuracy. Comparisons generate a GT's constant concept modifiability.” The transparency of a fully grounded theory will be achieved only when the reader is able to clearly see how the researcher progressed from raw data to the final integrated core variable. If the researcher who uses the CGT research method follows the guidelines outlined in this paper then this will achieved. 379 Acknowledgments Titus Tossy acknowledges the GT mentoring support he is receiving from Dr. Andy Lowe, the fellow of Grounded Theory institute, Mill Valley, CA USA. References Adolph, S., Hall, W., and Kruchten, P. (2008) A methodological leg to stand on: lessons learned using grounded theory to study softwaren development. In Proceedings of the 2008 Conference of the Center For Awdvanced Studies on Collaborative Research: Meeting of Minds (Ontario, Coanada, October 27-30, 2008). M. Chechik, M. Vidger and D. Stewaert, ETds. CASCON „08. 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